<p>Article</p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Abstract:</span><b> </b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">The European Union is committed to having member states reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2030. On what sustainable information are countries basing their decarbonization? What is the relevance of the carbon accounting methods used?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">The objective is to question the data available to measure the decarbonization of cities. We discuss the relevance of the three carbon accounting methods used (production, consumption, and community infrastructure). We show that the local governance structure influences how a territory undertakes climate actions and the effectiveness of these actions. We rely on a multi-stakeholder approach to climate governance based on vertical and horizontal coordination.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">The methodology relies on a comparative case study based on cities' ambition in terms of % of GHG emissions to be mitigated by 2050. We use the Carbon Disclosure Project 2020 database, which allows cities to publicly disclose information on their climate action plans and achievements. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">We identify a set of criteria for comparing decarbonization strategies and show the need to strengthen the methodology for assessing progress in reducing GHG emissions. In an economic intelligence approach, we show the importance of sustainable information for the decarbonized development of territories.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">Introduction</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">L'objectif de l’accord de Paris (COP 21), adopté par plus de 170 pays en 2015, est de contraindre le réchauffement climatique à des niveaux bien inférieurs à 2°C, voire 1,5°C, par rapport aux niveaux préindustriels (CCNUCC, 2015 ; Rogelj et <i>al</i>., 2019). Dans le cadre de cet accord, de nombreuses régions du monde ont proposé des objectifs spécifiques pour l'atténuation des gaz à effet de serre (GES) et des politiques environnementales plus strictes (Liobikiene et Butkus, 2017 ; Sobrinho et <i>al</i>., 2020 ; Zhou et <i>al</i>., 2021) mais beaucoup reste à faire (UNEP, 2020 ; GIEC 2022). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Le rôle des villes et de leurs acteurs dans la création d'une société durable à faible émission de carbone est essentiel (Georgeson et <i>al</i>., 2016 ; Sun et <i>al</i>., 2016). Les villes couvrent 3 % de la surface de la Terre, accueillent la moitié de la population mondiale, sont responsables de plus de 70 % des émissions de GES et de près de 80% de la consommation mondiale d’énergie (IEA, 2012 ; IIASA, 2012 ; Wei et al. 2021). On s'attend à ce que, d'ici 2050, 70% de la population mondiale vive dans des zones urbaines. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Avec le<i> Green Deal, </i>l’Union européenne (UE) s’engage de manière contraignante à ce que les États membres réduisent fortement les émissions de GES à l’horizon de 2030 (Drysdale et <i>al</i>., 2020). </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Dans de cadre, de nombreuses villes de l'UE se sont engagées à réduire leurs émissions de GES, voire atteindre la neutralité carbone (Reckien et <i>al</i>., 2018).<span style="color:black"> Cependant Salvia et <i>al</i>. (2021), après avoir évalué les plans de 327 villes de l'UE, ont montré que beaucoup de villes devraient doubler leurs ambitions pour atteindre les objectifs fixés par l'Accord de Paris.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">L’objectif </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">de cet article <span style="color:black">est d’analyser l’information durable (Nolin 2010) sur laquelle les villes adossent leur stratégie de décarbonation et de questionner la pertinence des méthodes de comptabilisation des émissions carbone. Ces données sont nécessaires pour établir les bilans comparés des émissions de GES et permettent d’identifier les grandes lignes des actions des villes pour réduire les émissions de GES. Mais les indicateurs produits sont-ils pour autant suffisants et pertinents ? Permettent-ils d’évaluer l’efficacité des politiques de réductions des émissions de GES ?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Dans un premier point nous présenterons la façon dont la décarbonation des villes est mesurée. Nous étudierons ensuite la stratégie de décarbonation de 12 villes européennes pour finir par </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">une analyse critique de l’information durable disponible en matière de décarbonation des villes ?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">La mesure de la décarbonation des villes</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Aborder la décarbonation des villes revient non seulement à mesurer les émissions de GES mais surtout à établir un bilan carbone </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">dans une perspective relativement longue pour appréhender les tendances et les évolutions en matière de décarbonation. Les méthodes de comptabilisation sont complexes car non encore unifiées, et reposent essentiellement sur de l’auto-déclaratif (1). Les données sont regroupées au sein de plateformes et de bases de données disponibles en open data (2).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">Une méthode basée sur l'auto-déclaration</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Pour appréhender la décarbonation, il faut d’abord être en mesure de mesurer les émissions de CO2 des villes. Deux méthodes semblent désormais s’imposer, celle de <i>l’Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories</i> plus connu sous le nom de méthode du GIEC (IPPC, 2019) et celle proposée par le <i>Global Protocol for Community Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories</i> (GPC, 2014). Cette dernière ambitionne de devenir la norme internationale recommandée pour la comptabilisation des émissions de GES des villes. Ces organisations proposent aux villes de suivre une méthodologie précise pour renseigner au mieux les émissions de GES et rendre les données comparables.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Ces méthodes présentent des différences dans les exigences de comptabilisation, en particulier pour les émissions hors des « frontières » urbaines liées aux activités intérieures. Cela peut conduire à des résultats différents, pour une même ville. Dans ces protocoles, la comparaison des détails des émissions transfrontalières est nécessaire. On devrait avoir la capacité de mesurer les émissions territoriales et d’y ajouter les émissions incorporées dans les importations et d’en déduire les émissions incorporées dans les exportations (Chen et <i>al.</i>, 2019).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">T<span style="color:black">outes les villes ou agglomérations sont amenées, sur la base du volontariat, à fournir un ensemble de données standardisées en répondant à un questionnaire annuel. Ce travail d’harmonisation est important pour permettre </span>l'évaluation et la comparaison des progrès de l'atténuation des émissions de GES dans le temps et l'espace. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">C’est sur cette base déclarative que nombres d’auteurs ont évalué l'efficacité des progrès en matière de réduction des émissions de GES ou des objectifs climatiques dans certaines villes (Chen et al., 2019 ; Chen et Chen, 2012 ; <span style="color:black">Drozdz et <i>al</i>., 2021</span>). Cependant, il n'existe pas de bilan global des villes à différents stades de développement à l'échelle sectorielle (transport, bâtiments, déchets, etc.) et les comparaisons entre les différentes années sont souvent incohérentes. Il est également essentiel de comparer les objectifs de réduction des émissions de carbone entre les villes, ce qui est important pour évaluer les écarts entre les progrès actuels et les attentes futures en matière d'atténuation. <span style="color:black">En fait, il semble plus facile de suivre les trajectoires individuelles des villes que de les comparer. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">Les bases de données disponibles</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Le Carbon Disclosure Project </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">est </span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">une plateforme mondiale qui permet aux villes de publier des informations sur les plans d'action climatique et sur les réalisations accomplies en matière de réduction des GES. La base de données comprend des informations provenant d'un questionnaire volontaire que les représentants des villes remplissent chaque année. Cette plateforme dispose de la collection la plus complète de données environnementales auto-déclarées au monde. Elle contient des données sur les émissions de GES, l'atténuation du changement climatique, les plans d'adaptation et les objectifs climatiques. Le CDP a une couverture élevée des villes mondiales et une qualité de données relativement bonne, et sont disponibles en open source. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Le CDP collabore avec la Convention mondiale des maires pour le climat et l'énergie et avec le C40 cities, réseau qui relie 97 des plus grandes villes du monde pour lutter contre le changement climatique en fournissant des informations sur les émissions de carbone et les plans de réduction des émissions de GES. Le CDP collabore avec l'ICLEI pour la durabilité et d'autres organisations qui œuvrent en faveur de l'action climatique au niveau local. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Au niveau européen, le réseau Euro Cities regroupe les 200 principales villes européennes de 38 pays. L’ambition est de proposer aux 130 millions d’habitants concernés, une meilleure qualité de vie en partenariat avec l’UE dans une logique <i>bottom-up</i> de changements issus du terrain. L’Agence européenne pour l’environnement en collaboration avec son Centre thématique européen sur l'atténuation du changement climatique et l'énergie (CTE/CME), compile et traite les données transmises par les États membres. L’Agence analyse également les tendances passées et à venir ainsi que les facteurs sous-jacents des émissions de GES. Elle est en mesure de renseigner sur les progrès de l'UE en matière de réduction des émissions de GES dans son rapport annuel.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Nous sommes bien en présence d’une information durable au sens de « information for sustainable development » de Nollin (2011). Cette information, ici centrée sur les émissions de GES, propose des indicateurs en appui des politiques publiques, est de nature participative (auto déclaration) et est collectée et diffusée par des systèmes d’information accessibles à tous (base de données en open source).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">La décarbonation de 12 villes de l'Union européenne</h2>
<h3>Echantillon et données explorées</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Notre échantillon<b> </b>comprend les 12 villes européennes suivantes, classées par ordre alphabétique : Barcelone (Espagne), Berlin (Allemagne), Braga (Portugal), Copenhague (Danemark), Heidelberg (Allemagne), Helsinki (Finlande), Lahti (Finlande), Malmö (Suède), Paris (France), Stockholm (Suède), Turin (Italie), Turku (Finlande). Il s’agit de <span style="color:black">12 régions urbaines (villes ou zones métropolitaines) de 8 pays de l’UE, sélectionnées en fonction de la représentativité de la taille des villes et de la distribution régionale. Ces échantillons urbains représentatifs sont généralement des villes centrales, des zones urbaines importantes voire des régions métropolitaines dans leur pays. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">La sélection des villes est basée sur l'ambition des objectifs climatiques à l'échelle de la communauté en termes de % d'émissions de GES à atténuer d'ici 2050 ou avant. </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">De ce fait, toutes ces villes sont ou ont été classées dans la « liste A » établie par le Carbon Disclosure Project. Cette « liste A » a été établie en 2018 à la suite de la COP 21 et fait l’objet d’une actualisation régulière. Il s’agit de recenser les villes qui ont réalisé des progrès majeurs depuis la signature de l’accord de Paris et se sont fixé des objectifs ambitieux en matière de changement climatique. Comme le montre le tableau 1, deux villes de notre échantillon sont classées depuis 2018 (Barcelone et Paris), sept villes sont entrées dans le classement en 2019 (Berlin, Heidelberg, Lahti, Malmö, Stockholm, Turin et Turku) et 3 villes en 2020 (Braga, Copenhague, Helsinki). Les deux derniers classements (2021 et 2022) voient des villes sortir du classement. Il s’agit de Heidelberg, Malmö et Turin qui sont sorties en 2021 et de Berlin, Copenhague, Heidelberg, Helsinski, Stockholm et Turin en 2022. Ces villes n’ont probablement pas maintenu leurs engagements en raison de la pandémie de coronavirus. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Par ailleurs, la moitié de ces villes ont été finalistes ou ont obtenu le <i>European Green Capital Award</i>, récompense qui couronne les efforts des villes soucieuses de proposer à leurs citoyens une vie urbaine respectueuse de l’environnement. Il s’agit d’une initiative prise en 2006 par 15 villes européennes (Tallinn, Helsinki, Riga, Vilnius, Berlin, Varsovie, Madrid, Ljubljana, Prague, Vienne, Kiel, Kotka, Dartford, Tartu et Glasgow) et l'Association des villes estoniennes. Cette initiative est relayée et soutenue par la Commission européenne depuis 2008. Elle valorise les initiatives locales qui peuvent ensuite être partagées avec d’autres villes au titre de l’échange de bonnes pratiques selon une logique <i>bottom-up</i>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3 align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><i><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="font-weight:normal">Tableau 1</span></span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h3>
<h3 align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><i><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="font-weight:normal">Les 12 villes de notre échantillon</span></span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h3>
<p><img height="304" src="https://www.numerev.com/img/ck_2702_1_image.png" width="908" /></p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Sources : <span style="color:black">CDP « Liste A » ; EU cities, <span class="MsoHyperlink" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="color:black">C40</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p> </p>
<p><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Les sources de données utilisées dans notre étude sur les villes sont les bases de données publiques de C40 Cities, EU Cities, l’Agence européenne pour l’environnement et la plateforme Carbon Disclosure Project qui est <span style="color:black">notre principale source d'information, car toutes les villes ou agglomérations ont volontairement fourni un ensemble de données standardisées en répondant à un questionnaire annuel. Cette base étant très riche, nous avons principalement exploré les données relatives aux émissions de GES dénommée <i>city-wide emission</i> disponible pour les années 2019, 2020 et 2021. </span><span style="color:black">Comme les villes sélectionnées disposent de bilans d'émissions de GES depuis au moins deux ans nous pourrons comparer les progrès de la réduction des émissions de GES. Nous avons également utilisé la base CDP <i>renewable energy</i> de 2020 qui précise les cibles des villes en matière d’énergie renouvelable. Nous avons ensuite exploité la base <i>Mitigation actions</i> qui recense les cibles et les actions en faveur de la réduction des émissions de GES. Enfin, la base <i>Governance</i>, renseigne sur l’intégralité des actions menées par les villes au-delà de la décarbonation (changement climatique). Cette base de données permet d’analyser des objectifs de réduction des émissions de carbone fournis par les villes.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Pour calculer les émissions de CO2, les villes de Berlin, Copenhague, Lahti et Turin ont utilisé les recommandations de <i>l’Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2006</i> (IPPC 2006) tandis que les autres villes du panel ont utilisé la méthode proposée par le <i>Global Protocol for Community Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories</i>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">Les actions des villes pour réduire les émissions de GES</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Les villes de l’échantillon ont fixé des objectifs de réduction de carbone clairs, parfois ambitieux, et traçables. La plupart des villes arrive à réduire leurs émissions de GES à la suite d’actions</span></span><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"> de réduction des émissions, de changement technologique, de la diminution de l'utilisation du chauffage urbain et du fioul domestique ou encore à l’amélioration de l'efficacité énergétique, mais aussi en raison de la réduction de la population et de la crise économique. L'énergie stationnaire et le transport routier sont les principaux responsables des émissions de GES des villes. Parmi tous les utilisateurs d'énergie stationnaire, les bâtiments résidentiels et institutionnels jouent un rôle important. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Les principales mesures prises par les villes concernent pour l’essentiel six secteur qui sont détaillée dans le tableau 2. S’agissant des approvisionnements en énergie, les villes étudiées cherchent à optimiser la production traditionnelle d'électricité/énergie (chauffage urbain, stockage de l’électricité) et à privilégier la production d'énergie à faible ou à zéro émission de carbone (biogaz, solaire, éolien). Les villes visent l’efficacité et la sobriété énergétique dans les bâtiments publics et privés, notamment les logements dans les parcs immobiliers anciens. Beaucoup de villes en sont au stade de la feuille de route et de l’affichage des intentions sauf en matière d’abandon des systèmes de chauffage au fioul et de développement du solaire. Concernant les déchets, les villes cherchent à améliorer l'efficacité de la collecte et viser le zéro déchet. Elles cherchent ensuite à produire avec ces déchets du biogaz. Certaines villes tentent de transformer les eaux usées en énergie (Copenhague, Lahti). Côté développement urbain, les villes tentent dans le cadre des réhabilitations à développer des éco-quartiers, les transports en commun, l’agriculture urbaine, la biodiversité et les espaces verts pour renforcer les puits de carbone. D’autres comme Braga ou Lahti se lancent dans le concept de « villes compactes ». L’action sur<i> </i>les infrastructures (hors transports) concerne l’éclairage public en LED et les éclairages « intelligents » (Paris, Barcelone) et la mise en place de capteurs (Barcelone, Paris, Turin). Les transports publics et privés constituent une préoccupation majeure partagée par toutes les villes de notre échantillon. Il s’agit de réaliser des économies de carburant et de réduire les émissions de CO2 des transports en communs (hydrogène, électrique). Toutes les villes misent sur le vélo, et les voitures électriques et surtout sur la réduction des véhicules privés par une meilleure gestion de la demande de transports (covoiturage, etc.). Il s’agit de favoriser les mobilités peu carbonées et de développer les infrastructures autour du vélo.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-indent: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 8px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><i><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="font-weight:normal">Tableau 2</span></span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3 align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><i><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="font-weight:normal">Actions des villes par secteurs pour réduire les émissions de GES</span></span></span></i></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h3>
<p><img height="1296" src="https://www.numerev.com/img/ck_2702_1_image2.png" width="908" /></p>
<p> </p>
<p><img height="1248" src="https://www.numerev.com/img/ck_2702_1_image3.png" width="908" /></p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Sources : D’après CDP Cities, City-wide Emissions (2021), fichier « Cities Emissions Reduction Targets & Actions »</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<h2 style="text-indent: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; margin-top: 8px; margin-bottom: 8px; text-align: left;">Discussion et analyse critique de l'information durable disponible</h2>
<p><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Afin de limiter le réchauffement climatique à 1,5â—¦C au cours de ce siècle, les villes doivent mener une politique de développement durable axée sur l'innovation. En outre, des instruments doivent être mis en place pour faciliter cette transformation et la mise à niveau des industries traditionnelles ainsi que le développement de chaînes d'approvisionnement plus propres et le passage à un mode de vie à faible émission de carbone. Plusieurs recommandations en matière de politique publique peuvent être formulées pour faire progresser les actions climatiques futures dans les villes.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3>Des stratégies d'atténuation plus efficaces si elles ciblent des secteurs clés</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">L'énergie consommée par le parc immobilier (résidentiel et d’entreprises) et les transports routiers sont les deux principaux secteurs responsables des émissions de GES des grandes métropoles. Des mesures telles que la promotion d'audits énergétiques sur la consommation d'énergie des bâtiments (Kontokosta et <i>al</i>., 2020), l'ajustement des structures des bâtiments (Li et <i>al</i>., 2019), et le contrôle et la réduction des activités de construction inutiles (Zhang et <i>al</i>., 2019) devraient être envisagées pour atteindre l'objectif d'émission nette zéro des bâtiments.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Les villes dont la population est importante, dont les infrastructures de transport se développent rapidement et dont la demande de déplacements est élevée ont tendance à avoir une part plus importante d'émissions liées au transport. Le contrôle efficace des émissions des transports suppose la mise en place de divers outils par les décideurs. Par exemple, les services publics peuvent systématiquement acheter des véhicules propres. En outre, les combustibles fossiles utilisés dans les transports devraient être remplacés par des énergies plus propres comme l'hydrogène et les biocarburants (Axsen et <i>al</i>., 2020), et promouvoir le développement du parc de véhicules électriques tant dans les transports publics que privés (Safarzy'nska et <i>al.</i>, 2018). De plus, les normes d'émissions routières devraient être améliorées et mises à jour pour minimiser l'impact des véhicules à essence et diesel existants (Thiel et <i>al</i>., 2016). La mise en place d’incitations économiques telles qu’un système de monnaie carbone pour les personnes employant des mobilités douces comme c’est le cas à Lahti (Finlande), peut être un élément facilitateur de la transition énergétique.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">En outre, la gestion des déchets et le recyclage ne doivent pas être ignorés (Weidner et <i>al., </i>2021<i>)</i>. Comme le montrent nos résultats, pour certaines villes telles que Lahti, la contribution de l'élimination des déchets aux émissions totales est relativement élevée. Il est très important pour décarboner d’être en mesure de renforcer la réutilisation des déchets sous forme de nouveaux produits à faible teneur en carbone comme la réutilisation de la biomasse pour la production d'énergie (Tripathi et <i>al</i>., 2019). Une gestion appropriée des déchets solides peut aider à optimiser l'utilisation des ressources, tendre vers le « zéro déchet » et donc contribuer à la construction d'une économie circulaire (Fernandez-Brana et <i>al.</i>, 2020).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3>Renforcement de la méthodologie d'évaluation des progrès en matière de réduction des émissions</h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Pour évaluer l'efficacité des politiques de réduction des émissions de carbone dans les zones urbaines, il est nécessaire de compiler des bilans d'émissions précis et chronologiques en utilisant une méthodologie cohérente. À l'heure actuelle, malgré les nombreux efforts déployés pour établir le compte carbone des différentes villes, il n'existe toujours pas de base de données dynamique de grande qualité sur les émissions de GES des villes à l'échelle mondiale. La plupart des villes ne disposent pas de bilans d'émissions de GES comparables dans le temps à un niveau sectoriel détaillé. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Certaines villes américaines et européennes ont développé des bilans d’émissions de GES relativement complets (par ex. Lahti, Turku, Malmö) tandis que d'autres villes ne disposent de données d'émissions que pour quelques années ou ne rapportent pas les émissions de certains secteurs (par ex. Berlin, Barcelone). La mise en place de données traçables, transparentes et disponibles sur longue période, sur les émissions de GES favoriserait une meilleure collaboration entre les grandes villes. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">En outre, les comptes carbone basés sur la consommation et sur les infrastructures ont été de plus en plus adoptés pour déterminer l'impact climatique et les responsabilités des villes en matière d'atténuation (Chen et Chen, 2017 ; Ramaswami et <i>al</i>., 2021). Le développement de bases de données mondiales reposant sur la consommation et l'infrastructure devrait également être à l'ordre du jour. L'amélioration du système de notification et de la qualité des données relatives aux émissions de GES serait préférable pour l'évaluation des processus de décarbonation. Cela impose des exigences plus élevées en matière de collecte de données de base, tant en termes de volume de données que de niveau de précision.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">Des objectifs de réduction plus ambitieux et plus faciles à suivre</h3>
<p><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Bien que de nombreux pays aient annoncé des engagements climatiques ambitieux, les objectifs climatiques semblent moins clairs et moins disponibles pour de nombreuses villes. Peu de villes dans le monde, y compris en Europe, ont des objectifs climatiques traçables. Les villes de la plupart des pays développés ont fixé des objectifs climatiques clairs à long terme, tels que la neutralité carbone d'ici 2050. En comparaison, un grand nombre de villes des régions en développement préfèrent des objectifs d'intensité et des objectifs de scénario de référence qui sont généralement basés sur le court ou le moyen terme, ce qui n'est pas entièrement compatible avec les objectifs climatiques mondiaux. À un certain stade, l'intensité de carbone est un indicateur utile de la décarbonation de l'économie et offre une meilleure flexibilité aux villes qui connaissent une croissance économique rapide et une augmentation des émissions. Mais à long terme, il est essentiel de passer des objectifs d'intensité aux objectifs absolus dans les villes pour atteindre la neutralité carbone mondiale d'ici 2050. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">En outre, des objectifs spécifiques décomposés en différents secteurs (par exemple, des objectifs spécifiques pour la consommation d'énergie, les transports et les déchets) sont nécessaires pour atténuer les écarts d'émissions. Copenhague prévoit d'atteindre une réduction de 20 % de la consommation de chaleur en 2025 par rapport à 2010 et des émissions nettes de carbone nulles dans les transports publics d'ici 2025 (CPH, 2012). Une large coopération entre les gouvernements, les communautés d'affaires, les institutions de recherche et les organisations sociales est nécessaire pour fournir des solutions technologiques synergiques en vue d'atteindre les objectifs de réduction des émissions sectorielles. Les objectifs climatiques pour les différents secteurs et industries devraient être conçus de manière simple et facilement traçable, et permettre une comparaison transparente au niveau sectoriel entre les villes (Levin et Fransen, 2019).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px">Conclusion</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Il convient de noter certaines limites et incertitudes. Ainsi, les définitions de l'unité de compte sont diverses et parfois incohérentes d'une ville à l'autre, ce qui rend difficile l'évaluation des villes à la même échelle géographique et à la même gouvernance, compte tenu des données actuelles. Cela peut introduire des incertitudes dans les comptes et bilans carbone. Par exemple, certaines mesures d'atténuation du changement climatique devraient avoir lieu dans des zones suburbaines voisines ou à un niveau plus élevé de la métropole (comme la réduction du carbone du transport interurbain et l'élimination des déchets en dehors du centre-ville). De récentes publications (Harris et <i>al.</i>, 2019 ; <i>EIB</i>, 2022) suggèrent qu’il faut lier les comptabilités en termes de production et en termes de consommation, ce qui nous semble pertinent.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Derrière la publication des informations, il y a un choix politique qui fait référence à un type particulier de gouvernance climatique qui repose sur une approche multi-acteurs et s’appuie tant sur une coordination verticale qu’horizontale (Fröhlich et <i>al</i>. 2013, Kern et Alber 2009). L<span style="color:black">a structure de gouvernance locale influence la manière dont un territoire entreprend des actions climatiques et l'efficacité potentielle de ces actions (Linton et al. 2020, Van Der Heijden 2019). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">La production de l’information durable, on le voit dans le cas du suivi des émissions de GES, nécessite des compétences techniques particulières et a donc un coût politique.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"> </p>
<h2>Références bibliographiques</h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Agence européenne pour l’environnement (2021), </span></span><a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/annual-european-union-greenhouse-gas-inventory-2021" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" target="_self"><i><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">EU Greenhouse Gas inventory report</span></span></i></a><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/annual-european-union-greenhouse-gas-inventory-2021 (consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Axsen, J., Plötz, P. et Wolinetz M. (2020). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Crafting strong, integrated policy mixes for deep CO2 mitigation in road transport. <i>Nature Climate Change,</i> 10, 809–818. doi: 10.1038/s41558-020-0877-y.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">C40 Cities. (2020). <i>Climate Action Planning Framework</i>; C40 Cities: London, UK. </span></span></span><a href="https://resourcecentre.c40.org/climate-action-planning-framework-home" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">https://resourcecentre.c40.org/climate-action-planning-framework-home</span></span></span></a> <span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Carbon Disclosure Project. (s.d.). </span></span></span><a href="https://www.cdp.net/en" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">https://www.cdp.net/en</span></span></a> <span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Chen, G., Shan, Y., Hu, Y., Tong, K., Wiedmann, T., Ramaswami, A., Guan, D., Shi, L. et Wang, Y. (2019). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Review on city-level carbon accounting, <i>Environmental Science & technology</i>, 53, 5545-5548.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Chen, S. Q. et Chen, B. (2017). Changing urban carbon metabolism over time: historical trajectory and future pathway. <i>Environmental Science & Technology</i> 51, 7560–7571.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Chen, S. Q. et Chen, B. (2012). </span></span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Network environ perspective for urban metabolism and carbon emissions: a case study of Vienna, Austria. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Environmental Science & Technol<span style="background-color:white">ogy,</span></span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white"> 46, 4498–4506. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">CPH. (2012). <i>CPH 2025 Climate Plan: A Green, Smart and Carbon Neutral</i>. City Copenhagen Carbon Neutral by 2025. </span></span></span><a href="https://kk.sites.itera.dk/apps/kk_pub2/pdf/983_jkP0ekKMyD.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">https://kk.sites.itera.dk/apps/kk_pub2/pdf/983_jkP0ekKMyD.pdf</span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"> (consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Dodman, D. (2009). Blaming cities for climate change? An analysis of urban greenhouse gas emissions inventories. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Environment & Urban</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">ization, 21, 185–201. doi: 10.1177/0956247809103016. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">DrozË™dzË™, W., Kinelski, G., Czarnecka, M.; Wojcik-Jurkiewicz, M., Marouškov, A. et Zych, G. (2021). Determinants of Decarbonization. How to Realize Sustainable and Low Carbon Cities? </span></span></span><i><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Energies,</span></span></span></i><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"> 14, 2640. </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">doi.org/10.3390/en14092640<span class="MsoHyperlink" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Drysdale, D., Krog, L. et Mathiesen, B. (2020). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Energy Vision Strategies for the EU Green New Deal: A Case Study of European Cities. <i>Energies</i>, 13, 2194. doi:10.3390/en13092194.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:18.4px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">EIB. (2022). Methodologies for the assessment of Project GHG Emissions and Emissions Variations, Version 11.2. February. </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:#0e2031"><span style="letter-spacing:-0.15pt">EIB Project Carbon Footprint Methodologies, </span></span></span></span></span><a href="https://www.eib.org/attachments/strategies/eib_project_carbon_footprint_methodologies_en.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">https://www.eib.org/attachments/strategies/eib_project_carbon_footprint_methodologies_en.pdf</span></span></span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:15.333332px"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Euro Cities. </span></span><a href="https://eurocities.eu/" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">https://eurocities.eu</span></span></a><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">, </span></span><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Fernandez-Brana, A., Feijoo, G. et Dias Ferreira, C. (2020). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Turning waste management into a carbon neutral activity: Practical demonstration in a medium-sized European city, <i>Science of the Total Environment</i>, 728, doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138843. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:#333333"><span style="background-color:#fcfcfc">Fröhlich, J. et Knieling, J. (2013). Conceptualising Climate Change Governance. In: Knieling, J., Leal Filho, W. (eds) <i>Climate Change Governance. Climate Change Management</i>. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Georgeson, L., Maslin, M., Poessinouw, M., et Howard, S. (2016). Adaptation responses to climate change differ between global megacities. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Nature Climate Change</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">s, 6, 584–588. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">GIEC. (2022), <i>AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2022</i>, </span></span></span><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/</span></span></a> <span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">GPC. </span></span></span><i><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Global Protocol for Community Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories.</span></span></i><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"> https://ghgprotocol.org/greenhouse-gas-protocol-accounting-reporting-standard-cities </span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Harris, S., Weinzettel, J., Bigano, A. et Kälimen, A. (2019). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Low carbon cities in 2050? GHG emissions of European cities using production-based and consumption-based emission accounting methods, <i>Journal of Cleaner Production, </i>248.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">ICLEI. <i>Local Governments for Sustainability</i>, </span></span></span><a href="https://www.iclei.org/" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">https://www.iclei.org</span></span></span></a> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">IEA. (2012). </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">World Energy Outlook 2012. Paris: International Energy Agency</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">. </span></span></span></span><a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2012" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2012</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">(consulté le 18 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">IIASA. (2012). </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">GEA 2012: Global Energy Assessment – Toward a Sustainable Future. </span></span></span></i><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Cambridge University Press<span style="background-color:white">. </span></span></span></span><a href="http://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/05198/frontmatter/9781107005198_frontmatter.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">http://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/05198/frontmatter/9781107005198_frontmatter.pdf</span></span></span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"> (consulté le 19 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">IPPC. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories</span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">.</span></span><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/2019-refinement-to-the-2006-ipcc-guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories/" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">https://www.ipcc.ch/report/2019-refinement-to-the-2006-ipcc-guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories/</span></span></a><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"> (consulté le 19 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Kern, K. et Alber, G. (2009). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Governing Climate Change in Cities: Modes of Urban Climate Governance in Multi-Level Systems. In <i>International Conference on Competitive Cities and Climate Change</i>; OCED: Paris, France, pp. 171–196.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Kontokosta, C. E., Spiegel-Feld, D. et Papadopoulos, S. (2020). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">The impact of mandatory energy audits on building energy use. <i>National Energy,</i> 5, 309–316.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Levin, K. et Fransen, T. (2019). <i>Commentary: Climate Action for Today and Tomorrow: The Relationship between NDCs and LTSs.</i></span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">World Resources Institute. </span></span></span><a href="https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/wri-commentary-climate-action-today.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/wri-commentary-climate-action-today.pdf</span></span></span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"> (consulté le 19 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Li, X., Yao,, R., Yu W., Meng, X., Liu, M., Short, A. et Li, B. (2019). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Low carbon heating and cooling of residential buildings in cities in the hot summer and cold winter zone - a bottom-up engineering stock modeling approach. <i>Journal of Cleaner Production,</i> 220, 271–288.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Liobikiene, G.et Butkus, M. (2017). The European Union possibilities to achieve targets of Europe 2020 and Paris agreement climate policy. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Renewable Energy</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">, 106, 298–309. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.01.036.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Nolin, J. (2010), Sustainable information and information science, <i>Information Research</i>, 15 (2), paper 421, </span></span></span><a href="http://www.informationr.net/ir/15-2/paper431.html" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif">http://www.informationr.net/ir/15-2/paper431.html</span></span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink" style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"> (consulté le 19 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Ramaswami, A., Tong, K., Canadell, J. G., Jackson, R. B., Stokes, E., Dhakal, S., Finch, M., Jittrapirom, P., Sing, N., Yamagata, Y., Yewdall, E., Yona, L. et Seto, K. C. (2021). Carbon analytics for net-zero emissions sustainable cities. <i>Nature Sustainability,</i> 4, 460-463.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Sobrinho, V., Lagutov, V., et Baran, S. (2020). Green with savvy? Brazil's climate pledge to the Paris Agreement and its transition to the green economy. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Energy Climate Change, </span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">1, 100015. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Sun, Y., Zhang, X., Ren, G., Zwiers, F. W., et Hu, T. (2016). Contribution of urbanization to warming in China. </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Nature Climate Chang</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">e, 6, 706–709.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Thiel, C., Nijs, W., Simoes, S., Schmidt, J., Van Zyl, A. et Schmid, E. (2016). The impact of the EU car CO2 regulation on the energy system and the role of electro-mobility to achieve transport decarbonization. <i>Energy Policy, </i>96, 153-166. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2016.05.043.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Tripathi, N., Hills, C. D., Singh, R. S. et Atkinson, C. J. (2019). Biomass waste utilization in low-carbon products: harnessing a major potential resource. <i>Climate and Atmospheric</i> <i>Science,</i> 2-35. doi: 10.1038/s41612-019-0093-5.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">UNEP. (2020). </span></span></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Emissions Gap Report 2020</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">. </span></span></span></span><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">United Nations Environment Program. </span></span></span></span><a href="https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">https://www.unep.org/emissions-gap-report-2020</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">(consulté le 19 novembre 2022).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:normal"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:400"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Wei, T., Wu, J. et Chen, S. (2021). </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size:10pt"><span style="font-family:Arial, sans-serif"><span style="color:black">Keeping Track of Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Progress and Targets in 167 Cities Worldwide. <i>Frontiers of Sustainable Cities,</i> 3, 696381. doi: 10.3389/frsc.2021. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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