<p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Introduction</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">L&rsquo;intelligence &eacute;conomique, &agrave; la fois &laquo;&nbsp;mode de pens&eacute;e et&nbsp;mode d&rsquo;action&nbsp;&raquo; (El Haddani et Baulant, 2018, p. 17, citant Levet, 2001) repose sur la ma&icirc;trise de l&rsquo;information dont la veille, l&rsquo;influence (pratiques offensives) et la protection de l&rsquo;information (pratiques d&eacute;fensives) (Marcon, 2014; Deschamps et Moinet,&nbsp;2017). Depuis les ann&eacute;es 1990, l&rsquo;int&eacute;r&ecirc;t pour la veille<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a> n&rsquo;est plus &agrave; d&eacute;montrer&nbsp;(Guechtouli, 2014). Toutefois, la veille ne dispose, actuellement, d&rsquo;aucune d&eacute;finition faisant l&rsquo;unanimit&eacute; dans les communaut&eacute;s scientifique et professionnelle. En effet, elle se d&eacute;cline en une quarantaine de termes, tels que veille strat&eacute;gique, vigie, surveillance, veille anticipative strat&eacute;gique, pour n&rsquo;en citer que quelques-uns. La synonymie des termes &laquo;&nbsp;parfois abusive&nbsp;&raquo; forme &laquo;&nbsp;un chaos conceptuel&nbsp;&raquo; (Lesca et Caron-Fasan,&nbsp;2006, p.&nbsp;155), notamment pour la veille strat&eacute;gique&nbsp;(<i>strategic intelligence</i>) qui demeure encore floue, parfois traduite par <i>environmental scanning</i> (surveillance de l&rsquo;environnement) (Lesca et Caron-Fasan, 2006; Kamoun-Chouk,&nbsp;2010), d&rsquo;autres fois par <i>competitive intelligence</i> (veille concurrentielle<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a>)&nbsp;(Bergeron et Hiller,&nbsp;2002; Guechtouli, 2014; Gr&egrave;zes,&nbsp;2015). Dans cet article, nous rassemblons ces trois concepts dans l&rsquo;expression &laquo;&nbsp;veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie&nbsp;&raquo; en opposition &agrave; la veille informationnelle (ou documentaire) et nous les comparons sous l&rsquo;angle de leurs finalit&eacute;s et d&rsquo;un point de vue historique. Ainsi, l&rsquo;article pose la question&nbsp;: <i>environmental scanning</i>, <i>competitive intelligence </i>et veille strat&eacute;gique poursuivent-ils les m&ecirc;mes finalit&eacute;s ?</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">La veille a toujours une finalit&eacute;&nbsp;(Gilad et Gilad, 1988) qui cependant diff&egrave;re d&rsquo;un concept de veille &agrave; l&rsquo;autre. La finalit&eacute; d&rsquo;une veille est sa raison d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre (Lesca et Caron-Fasan, 2006), sa fin en soi ou encore son but ultime. On ne collecte pas de l&rsquo;information simplement pour collecter de l&rsquo;information. On collecte de l&rsquo;information en vue de l&rsquo;utiliser pour prendre des d&eacute;cisions, pour innover, pour acqu&eacute;rir un avantage concurrentiel ou encore pour soutenir la strat&eacute;gie d&rsquo;une organisation (Gilad et Fuld, 2016), qui sont autant de finalit&eacute;s d&rsquo;une veille. D&rsquo;apr&egrave;s notre analyse comparative des d&eacute;finitions, les trois concepts de veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie (<i>environmental scanning</i>,<i> competitive intelligence </i>et veille strat&eacute;gique) ne poursuivent pas tout &agrave; fait les m&ecirc;mes finalit&eacute;s. Ces trois concepts semblent similaires au premier abord parce qu&rsquo;ils entretiennent une histoire commune li&eacute;e au management strat&eacute;gique, mais ils pr&eacute;sentent des sp&eacute;cificit&eacute;s du point de vue des raisons profondes pour lesquelles les organisations choisissent de les implanter. Nous aurions pu comparer ces concepts uniquement sous l&rsquo;angle des sources d&rsquo;information exploit&eacute;es (environnements concurrentiel, technologique, sectoriel, etc.). Nous avons choisi d&rsquo;aller plus loin en questionnant la raison d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre historique d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de <i>competitive intelligence </i>ou de veille strat&eacute;gique pour y d&eacute;celer des sp&eacute;cificit&eacute;s ou non.<s> </s></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Dans le cadre d&rsquo;une recherche doctorale qui porte sur les liens entre la veille strat&eacute;gique et la prise de d&eacute;cision et la strat&eacute;gie des organisations, il nous a sembl&eacute; indispensable de mieux comprendre les autres concepts de veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie. Une pr&eacute;c&eacute;dente &eacute;tude (Anonymis&eacute; <i>et al.</i>, 2015) a permis de comparer la veille strat&eacute;gique et la veille informationnelle (ou documentaire). Le recours au management strat&eacute;gique nous a permis de distinguer des similitudes et des diff&eacute;rences dans les finalit&eacute;s des concepts de veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie<i>.</i> Distincte d&rsquo;une veille informationnelle, la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie est un processus continu, syst&eacute;matique, &eacute;thique et l&eacute;gal, de collecte, d&rsquo;analyse et de diffusion d&rsquo;information, r&eacute;alis&eacute; par des experts, dans le but de soutenir des managers dans leur prise de d&eacute;cision, notamment strat&eacute;gique, dans la planification strat&eacute;gique et/ou dans le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel pour leur organisation. Cet article examine, sous l&rsquo;angle des finalit&eacute;s, les concepts de veille strat&eacute;gique, <i>competitive intelligence </i>et <i>environnemental scanning</i>, trois concepts de veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie.&nbsp; </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Dans un premier temps, les diff&eacute;rentes approches du management strat&eacute;gique et les liens que cette discipline entretient avec l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, la <i>competitive intelligence</i> et la veille strat&eacute;gique seront pr&eacute;sent&eacute;s. Le choix des concepts, la recension des d&eacute;finitions et la validation de notre grille d&rsquo;analyse seront ensuite expos&eacute;s. L&rsquo;analyse comparative de plusieurs d&eacute;finitions d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de <i>competitive intelligence</i> et de veille strat&eacute;gique permettront d&rsquo;identifier des finalit&eacute;s propres &agrave; chacun de ces trois concepts de veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie, afin d&rsquo;en proposer des d&eacute;finitions op&eacute;rationnelles. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">1. Aux origines de la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">La veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie et le management strat&eacute;gique sont intimement li&eacute;s. Le management strat&eacute;gique, &laquo;&nbsp;b&acirc;ton d&rsquo;aveugle&nbsp;&raquo; (Hafsi, 1997) tant pour les chercheurs que pour les dirigeants d&rsquo;entreprises, consiste &agrave; comprendre la strat&eacute;gie des organisations en mobilisant diff&eacute;rentes approches, parfois aux visions oppos&eacute;es, souvent aux regards compl&eacute;mentaires. Ainsi, les trois concepts qui nous int&eacute;ressent dans cet article puisent leurs racines dans diff&eacute;rentes approches du management strat&eacute;gique, &agrave; premi&egrave;re vue de mani&egrave;re lin&eacute;aire, en r&eacute;alit&eacute; de mani&egrave;re crois&eacute;e et compl&eacute;mentaire. La question de ce qu&rsquo;est la strat&eacute;gie n&rsquo;est pas simple et elle est indissociable d&rsquo;une bonne compr&eacute;hension de l&rsquo;environnement des managers. Avant les ann&eacute;es 1960, plusieurs th&eacute;oriciens du milieu des affaires avaient propos&eacute; une d&eacute;finition de la strat&eacute;gie. Par exemple, pour Drucker (1954), elle consistait &agrave; r&eacute;pondre &agrave; trois questions : </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">(1) Quelle est notre organisation&nbsp;? </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">(2) Quelle est sa mission et que devrait-elle &ecirc;tre&nbsp;?</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">(3)&nbsp;Que devraient &ecirc;tre les objectifs de l&#39;organisation dans ses domaines cl&eacute;s&nbsp;? </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Cinquante ans plus tard, Drucker (2006) sugg&egrave;re toujours aux managers de suivre huit pratiques essentielles, notamment de &laquo;&nbsp;scanner&nbsp;&raquo; (p. XIX) les changements de l&rsquo;environnement interne et externe d&rsquo;une entreprise pour r&eacute;pondre &agrave; ces deux questions&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;<i>What needs to be done?</i>&nbsp;&raquo; et &laquo;&nbsp;<i>What is right for the enterprise?</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (p. XI). En se concentrant sur les opportunit&eacute;s (plut&ocirc;t que les probl&egrave;mes), le manager utilise la veille (&laquo;&nbsp;<i>scan</i>&nbsp;&raquo;) pour r&eacute;ussir. La veille serait d&rsquo;autant plus utile pour la strat&eacute;gie des organisations depuis les ann&eacute;es 2000. En effet, selon l&rsquo;approche &eacute;cologique des r&eacute;seaux, les organisations ne souffrent plus seulement d&rsquo;une abondance d&rsquo;information mais d&rsquo;un manque d&rsquo;informations utiles (&laquo;&nbsp;<i>lack of useful information</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (Baulant, 2015, p. 568). Nous proposons d&rsquo;approfondir ce que signifie &laquo;&nbsp;scanner&nbsp;&raquo; au regard de l&rsquo;&eacute;volution de trois approches compl&eacute;mentaires du management strat&eacute;gique. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">1.1 Des approches du management strat&eacute;gique</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Dans les ann&eacute;es 1960, la strat&eacute;gie a &eacute;t&eacute; d&eacute;finie comme l&rsquo;ensemble des moyens pour atteindre les objectifs de l&rsquo;organisation&nbsp;: &laquo; <i>objectives represent the ends, which the firm is seeking to attain, while the strategy is the means to these ends</i> &raquo; (Ansoff, 1965, p. 78). Cette approche est celle de la planification strat&eacute;gique (Helfer <i>et al.</i>, 2016). Depuis, d&rsquo;autres approches du management strat&eacute;gique ont contribu&eacute; &agrave; expliquer ce qu&rsquo;est la strat&eacute;gie. Ainsi, pour l&rsquo;approche du positionnement (ou de l&rsquo;&eacute;conomie industrielle), n&eacute;e dans les ann&eacute;es 1980, la strat&eacute;gie vise &agrave; acqu&eacute;rir un &laquo;&nbsp;avantage concurrentiel&nbsp;&raquo; (Porter, 1990) en amenant l&rsquo;organisation &agrave; proposer des biens et services uniques et diff&eacute;renci&eacute;s. Pour cela, il est n&eacute;cessaire de bien comprendre la dynamique de la concurrence et de d&eacute;terminer son portefeuille d&rsquo;activit&eacute;s. &laquo;&nbsp;<i>Strategy is what makes one unique, gives one a distinct competitive advantage, provides direction, builds brand reputation, sets the right goals, add superior performance, defines a market position, and creates a unique value proposition</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (Porter, 2005, p. 14). Selon l&rsquo;approche fond&eacute;e sur les ressources&nbsp;(<i>resource-based&nbsp;view</i>), qui s&rsquo;est d&eacute;velopp&eacute;e dans les ann&eacute;es 1990 et qui voit ses origines chez Penrose (1959), la strat&eacute;gie vise &agrave; maintenir un avantage concurrentiel durable. L&rsquo;environnement actuel &eacute;tant instable, dynamique, complexe et turbulent, l&rsquo;organisation doit puiser dans ses ressources, comp&eacute;tences et capacit&eacute;s internes et dans l&rsquo;environnement externe pour maintenir durablement l&rsquo;avantage concurrentiel. &laquo;&nbsp;<i>Resources and capabilities are important for understanding the sources of sustained competitive advantage for firms</i>&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Barney <i>et al.</i>,&nbsp;2011, p. 1300). </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">La strat&eacute;gie peut &ecirc;tre planifi&eacute;e, intentionnelle; elle peut aussi &ecirc;tre &eacute;mergente, autrement dit r&eacute;alis&eacute;e sans intention initiale (Mintzberg et Waters, 1985). Le caract&egrave;re &eacute;mergent d&rsquo;une strat&eacute;gie n&rsquo;est pas n&eacute;cessairement absent des trois approches r&eacute;capitul&eacute;es dans la Figure 1. Avenier (1999) propose pour sa part&nbsp;la perspective &laquo;&nbsp;strat&eacute;gie chemin faisant&nbsp;&raquo; qui est fond&eacute;e sur une intention strat&eacute;gique, d&eacute;finie par la vision strat&eacute;gique, et sur une adaptation continuelle par apprentissage organisationnel au cours des actions r&eacute;alis&eacute;es par l&rsquo;entreprise. La vision strat&eacute;gique (intention) est reconsid&eacute;r&eacute;e et d&eacute;form&eacute;e &agrave; chaque fois qu&rsquo;un ph&eacute;nom&egrave;ne survient au cours de l&rsquo;action, mais continue &agrave; donner &laquo; des fils conducteurs &agrave; l&rsquo;action qui la rendent d&eacute;codable&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Avenier,&nbsp;1999, p.&nbsp;5). </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><img height="840" src="https://www.numerev.com/img/ck_1025_18_image-20211130172653-1.png" width="1952" /></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoCaption" style="text-align:justify; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Figure 1 Trois principales approches du management strat&eacute;gique</span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Ces approches ne s&rsquo;opposent pas l&rsquo;une l&rsquo;autre, apparaissent aujourd&rsquo;hui plut&ocirc;t compl&eacute;mentaires, et ont influenc&eacute; grandement le d&eacute;veloppement de la veille, tant dans la pratique que dans la recherche&nbsp;(Calof et Wright, 2008). Dans cet article, la strat&eacute;gie d&rsquo;une organisation est d&eacute;finie comme un processus non lin&eacute;aire, &agrave; la fois d&eacute;lib&eacute;r&eacute; et &eacute;mergent, qui consiste &agrave; prendre des d&eacute;cisions strat&eacute;giques, &agrave; &eacute;tablir une vision &agrave; long terme et &agrave; acqu&eacute;rir et maintenir un avantage concurrentiel gr&acirc;ce &agrave; une compr&eacute;hension profonde de ses environnements externes et internes. Cette d&eacute;finition a &eacute;t&eacute; construite &agrave; partir d&rsquo;une revue de la litt&eacute;rature plus exhaustive sur la strat&eacute;gie des organisations dans le cadre d&rsquo;une th&egrave;se de doctorat (Anonymis&eacute;, 2020).&nbsp; </span></span></span><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><a name="_Toc517430913"></a></span></span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><a name="_Toc517430913"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">1.2 <i>Environmental scanning</i> et l&rsquo;approche de la planification strat&eacute;gique</span></span></b></a></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Dans les ann&eacute;es 1960, les grandes entreprises se sont appropri&eacute;es l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, en m&ecirc;me temps que la planification strat&eacute;gique influen&ccedil;ait la pens&eacute;e et les actions des dirigeants des entreprises priv&eacute;es. Le premier auteur &agrave; parler de l&rsquo;<i>environnemental scanning</i> est Aguilar (1967), professeur &agrave; la Harvard Business School et un des premiers penseurs du management strat&eacute;gique. Il indique qu&rsquo;il est indispensable pour une entreprise de conna&icirc;tre son environnement externe afin de maintenir un avantage concurrentiel sur le march&eacute;. Aujourd&rsquo;hui encore, il est tr&egrave;s souvent cit&eacute; dans les &eacute;crits portant sur l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i> (Choo, 2002; Dalton et Balkema, 2012; Robinson et Simmons, 2017).</span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Selon l&rsquo;approche de la planification strat&eacute;gique, pr&eacute;pond&eacute;rante dans l&rsquo;environnement relativement stable des ann&eacute;es 1960-1970, la strat&eacute;gie consiste &agrave; &eacute;laborer un plan qui d&eacute;finit les moyens &agrave; mettre en &oelig;uvre pour atteindre un but vis&eacute; (Helfer <i>et al.</i>, 2016). Pour cela, il est indispensable de bien comprendre son environnement afin de &laquo;&nbsp;gagner&nbsp;&raquo; la bataille sur le march&eacute;&nbsp;(Ansoff,&nbsp;1965;&nbsp;Andrews,&nbsp;1971). La formulation de la strat&eacute;gie, con&ccedil;ue comme un processus lin&eacute;aire, commence par l&rsquo;analyse des opportunit&eacute;s et menaces de l&rsquo;environnement externe (Aguilar,&nbsp;1967; Andrews, 1971) et des forces et faiblesses de l&rsquo;environnement interne&nbsp;(Andrews, 1971), un mod&egrave;le &agrave; la base de l&rsquo;analyse SWOT (<i>strenghts, weaknesses, opportunities, threats</i>) (Helfer <i>et al.</i>, 2016). Initialement, le concept de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>portait surtout sur la surveillance de l&rsquo;environnement externe&nbsp;(Aguilar, 1967; Hambrick, 1981). R&eacute;cemment, il inclut d&eacute;sormais l&rsquo;exploitation des sources d&rsquo;information externes et internes&nbsp;(Wheelen&nbsp;<i>et&nbsp;al.</i>,&nbsp;2014), une &eacute;volution qui pourrait avoir &eacute;t&eacute; influenc&eacute;e par l&rsquo;approche fond&eacute;e sur les ressources. </span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><a name="_Toc517430914"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">1.3 <i>Competitive intelligence </i>et l&rsquo;approche </span></span></b></a><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">du positionnement</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a name="_Hlk482695717">Selon l&rsquo;approche du positionnement, les dirigeants doivent tenir compte de l&rsquo;environnement concurrentiel, un sous-ensemble de l&rsquo;environnement externe. Aussi, le mod&egrave;le des cinq forces de Porter (1985) est un outil encore tr&egrave;s utilis&eacute; aujourd&rsquo;hui (Helfer <i>et al.</i>, 2016) pour comprendre la dynamique de la concurrence au sein d&rsquo;une industrie, et ce, en d&eacute;finissant la rivalit&eacute; des concurrents directs, la menace des entrants potentiels et celle des produits de substitution, ainsi que le pouvoir de n&eacute;gociation des fournisseurs et celui des clients. Ces cinq forces composent l&rsquo;environnement concurrentiel de l&rsquo;entreprise&nbsp;(Porter,&nbsp;1985). </a>Dans les ann&eacute;es 1980 et 1990, l&rsquo;approche du positionnement d&eacute;veloppe les concepts de <i>competitor intelligence</i>, de <i>business intelligence</i>&nbsp;et de <i>competitive intelligence</i>, principalement aux &Eacute;tats-Unis autour des travaux de praticiens&nbsp;(Calof et Wright,&nbsp;2008). <i>Competitive intelligence</i> est aujourd&rsquo;hui le terme le plus r&eacute;pandu dans le monde anglo-saxon, prenant le pas sur des termes au d&eacute;part relativement proches, comme <i>competitor intelligence</i> et <i>business intelligence</i> (Du Toit, 2015). R&eacute;cemment, certaines d&eacute;finitions de la <i>competitive intelligence </i>tendent &agrave; inclure &eacute;galement les sources d&rsquo;information internes (Pellissier et Nenzhelele, 2013), ce qui pourrait s&rsquo;expliquer encore une fois par l&rsquo;influence de l&rsquo;approche fond&eacute;e sur les ressources dans le domaine de la strat&eacute;gie des organisations.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Enfin, ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es, <i>environmental scanning </i>est parfois utilis&eacute; comme synonyme de <i>competitive intelligence </i>(Calof et Wright, 2008; Pellissier et Nenzhelele, 2013). Pourtant, comme nous le d&eacute;velopperons ult&eacute;rieurement, les principales finalit&eacute;s de ces deux concepts divergent, une divergence qui viendrait appuyer le fait que l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>et la <i>competitive intelligence </i>s&rsquo;inscrivent dans deux approches diff&eacute;rentes du management strat&eacute;gique.</span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">1.4 Veille strat&eacute;gique, influenc&eacute;e par l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i> et la <i>competitive intelligence</i>?</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">La veille strat&eacute;gique puiserait ses racines &agrave; la fois dans les &eacute;crits sur l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>et sur la <i>competitive intelligence</i>. En effet, Lesca&nbsp;(1994; 1997), Audet (1998), Bergeron et Hiller&nbsp;(2002), Brouard (2004) et Dumas&nbsp;(2005) utilisent la d&eacute;finition de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>d&rsquo;Aguilar&nbsp;(1967) pour d&eacute;velopper leur propre d&eacute;finition de la veille strat&eacute;gique. Martinet et Ribault&nbsp;(1989), Pateyron&nbsp;(1998), Lesca (2003) et Dumas (2005) se basent sur le mod&egrave;le des cinq forces de Porter pour pr&eacute;senter la veille strat&eacute;gique sous la forme de quatre types de veille diff&eacute;rents&nbsp;: les deux premiers types de veille&nbsp;(veilles concurrentielle et commerciale) permettent de r&eacute;pondre aux forces concurrentielles du mod&egrave;le des cinq forces; &agrave; ces deux types de veille, ils ajoutent les veilles technologique et soci&eacute;tale, qui offrent de nouveaux &eacute;l&eacute;ments &agrave; l&rsquo;entreprise pour la compr&eacute;hension de son environnement externe g&eacute;n&eacute;ral. La veille strat&eacute;gique serait donc &agrave; la fois influenc&eacute;e par l&rsquo;approche de la planification strat&eacute;gique et par celle du positionnement, mais aussi plus r&eacute;cemment, par la &laquo;&nbsp;strat&eacute;gie chemin faisant&nbsp;&raquo; d&rsquo;Avenier (1999) par exemple. </span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Compte tenu de ces influences, l&rsquo;analyse comparative des concepts d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de <i>competitive intelligence</i> et de veille strat&eacute;gique permettra d&rsquo;apporter des &eacute;l&eacute;ments de r&eacute;ponse sur les finalit&eacute;s strat&eacute;giques de ces trois types de veille et, par cons&eacute;quent, de la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie. La prochaine section d&eacute;crit le choix des concepts, la recension des d&eacute;finitions et la validation de notre grille d&rsquo;analyse pour r&eacute;aliser une analyse comparative des finalit&eacute;s de la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie.</span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><a name="_Toc517430916"></a><a name="_Toc480286832"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">2. M&eacute;thodologie</span></span></b></a></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">2.1 Choix des concepts </span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Nous avons choisi de comparer les concepts d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning,</i> de <i>competitive intelligence </i>et de veille strat&eacute;gique parce que nous consid&eacute;rons qu&rsquo;il s&rsquo;agit des trois principaux concepts de la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie. Tout d&rsquo;abord, ils s&rsquo;adressent principalement &agrave; des d&eacute;cideurs, autrement dit &agrave; des personnes qui prennent des d&eacute;cisions strat&eacute;giques, s&rsquo;assurent de l&rsquo;atteinte des objectifs vis&eacute;s et m&egrave;nent la r&eacute;flexion strat&eacute;gique de l&rsquo;entreprise ou de leur unit&eacute; administrative&nbsp;(Helfer <i>et al.</i>, 2016). Par ailleurs, la lecture approfondie des d&eacute;finitions a permis, de mani&egrave;re inductive, de regrouper certains termes, comme <i>competitor intelligence </i>(au sens de Porter, 1980) dans la <i>competitive intelligence</i>, ou &laquo;&nbsp;veille marketing&nbsp;&raquo; (Dumas, 2005), &laquo;&nbsp;veille technologique&nbsp;&raquo; (Jakobiak, 1991) et &laquo;&nbsp;veille anticipative strat&eacute;gique&nbsp;&raquo; (Lesca, 2003) dans la cat&eacute;gorie de la veille strat&eacute;gique.</span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">En revanche, nous avons choisi d&rsquo;&eacute;carter deux concepts&nbsp;: veille informationnelle et <i>business intelligence </i>(intelligence d&rsquo;affaires)<i>. </i>La veille informationnelle n&rsquo;a pas &eacute;t&eacute; conserv&eacute;e parce que nous l&rsquo;avions d&eacute;j&agrave; compar&eacute;e &agrave; la veille strat&eacute;gique dans une pr&eacute;c&eacute;dente &eacute;tude&nbsp;(Anonymis&eacute; <i>et al.</i>,&nbsp;2015) et &eacute;tions arriv&eacute;es &agrave; la conclusion que la veille informationnelle vise certes &agrave; rejoindre des managers, mais aussi tout employ&eacute; d&rsquo;une organisation afin qu&rsquo;ils puissent mettre &agrave; jour leurs connaissances. La notion de strat&eacute;gie serait au c&oelig;ur de la distinction entre ces deux concepts de veille; la veille informationnelle ne viserait pas &agrave; soutenir la strat&eacute;gie. Ensuite, la <i>business intelligence</i>, qui peut &ecirc;tre d&eacute;finie comme un ensemble d&rsquo;outils visant &agrave; analyser les donn&eacute;es massives internes pour am&eacute;liorer la prise de d&eacute;cision et la performance des organisations&nbsp;(S&oslash;ilen, 2016), a &eacute;t&eacute; &eacute;cart&eacute;e de notre analyse, parce que &laquo;&nbsp;confondre la <i>Business Intelligence </i>et la veille consiste &agrave; appauvrir cette derni&egrave;re&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Lesca et Caron-Fasan,&nbsp;2006,&nbsp;p.&nbsp;161). </span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-align:justify; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">2.2 Recension des d&eacute;finitions</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Afin d&rsquo;identifier les principales d&eacute;finitions d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning, </i>de<i> competitive intelligence</i> et de veille strat&eacute;gique dans les pays anglo-saxons et francophones, nous avons effectu&eacute; une revue de la litt&eacute;rature dans des bases de donn&eacute;es (Taylor &amp; Francis, Emerald Journals, LISA, LISTA et CAIRN), dans des d&eacute;p&ocirc;ts institutionnels et dans des catalogues de biblioth&egrave;ques sur les termes suivants&nbsp;: veille strat&eacute;gique, veille concurrentielle, surveillance de l&rsquo;environnement, <i>strategic intelligence</i>, <i>competitive intelligence </i>et <i>scanning</i>. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Nous avons ensuite utilis&eacute; la technique des perles de citation ou<i>&nbsp;berrypicking</i>&nbsp;(Bates,&nbsp;1989) pour d&eacute;terminer les d&eacute;finitions les plus pr&eacute;sentes dans les th&egrave;ses, articles et ouvrages scientifiques, mais aussi pour retrouver les &eacute;crits des praticiens qui ont fortement influenc&eacute; le d&eacute;veloppement de ces concepts de veille. Aucune limitation chronologique n&rsquo;a &eacute;t&eacute; fix&eacute;e afin d&rsquo;&eacute;largir au maximum la recherche bibliographique. Le crit&egrave;re de s&eacute;lection des d&eacute;finitions consistait uniquement &agrave; s&rsquo;assurer qu&rsquo;au moins une finalit&eacute; de la veille &eacute;tait mentionn&eacute;e dans la d&eacute;finition.&nbsp; </span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">En tout, cinq d&eacute;finitions d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning, </i>12 de <i>competitive intelligence </i>et 18 de veille strat&eacute;gique ont &eacute;t&eacute; &eacute;tudi&eacute;es. Ce d&eacute;s&eacute;quilibre dans le nombre de d&eacute;finitions &eacute;tudi&eacute;es par concept peut s&rsquo;expliquer par le fait que, bien que la litt&eacute;rature sur la <i>competitive intelligence</i> soit abondante, les m&ecirc;mes d&eacute;finitions reviennent souvent (Du Toit, 2015). De m&ecirc;me, pour l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, la d&eacute;finition d&rsquo;Aguilar (1967) est encore aujourd&rsquo;hui largement cit&eacute;e&nbsp;(Dalton et Balkema, 2012; Robinson et Simmons, 2017), ce qui limite le nombre de d&eacute;finitions existantes.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><b>2.3 Grille d&rsquo;analyse</b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Nous avons &eacute;labor&eacute; une cat&eacute;gorisation des finalit&eacute;s de la &laquo;&nbsp;veille&nbsp;&raquo; au travers d&rsquo;une analyse de contenu qualitative &agrave; la fois d&eacute;ductive et inductive. Notre cadre conceptuel sur les approches du management strat&eacute;gique puis notre analyse qualitative du corpus des d&eacute;finitions recens&eacute;es nous ont conduites &agrave; proposer quatre cat&eacute;gories&nbsp;de finalit&eacute;s : (1) soutenir la prise de d&eacute;cision, (2) soutenir la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e d&rsquo;une organisation, (3)&nbsp;soutenir le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel, (4)&nbsp;soutenir la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente d&rsquo;une organisation (dans laquelle nous incluons l&rsquo;adaptation aux changements et la r&eacute;activit&eacute;, ainsi que l&rsquo;innovation et l&rsquo;anticipation des &eacute;volutions). Ces quatre cat&eacute;gories permettent de recouvrir les cinq finalit&eacute;s propos&eacute;es par Caron-Fasan et Lesca (2012), validant ainsi notre grille d&rsquo;analyse. La prochaine section pr&eacute;sente les r&eacute;sultats de notre analyse comparative des finalit&eacute;s d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de <i>competitive intelligence </i>et de veille strat&eacute;gique. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><b>3. R&eacute;sultats et discussion</b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Para" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">3.1 Les finalit&eacute;s de la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie</span></span></b></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Il appara&icirc;t clairement que le soutien &agrave; la prise de d&eacute;cision demeure une finalit&eacute; importante dans les d&eacute;finitions de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de la <i>competitive intelligence </i>et de la veille strat&eacute;gique. Cependant, des finalit&eacute;s propres &agrave; chacun des concepts ont pu &ecirc;tre mises en &eacute;vidence. Ainsi, comme le montre le Tableau I,<i> </i>l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i> servirait surtout &agrave; soutenir la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e, la <i>competitive intelligence </i>s&rsquo;inscrirait clairement dans </span></span><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;(Utiliser une police de caractè&quot;,serif">l&rsquo;acquisition </span></span><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">et le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel, et la veille strat&eacute;gique plut&ocirc;t dans le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente.</span></span> </span></span></span></p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Tableau I Finalit&eacute;s des concepts d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de <i>competitive intelligence</i> et de veille strat&eacute;gique&nbsp;: nombre de d&eacute;finitions et auteurs<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px"><img height="5216" src="https://www.numerev.com/img/ck_1025_18_Finalites-veille.png" width="3697" /></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Les finalit&eacute;s propres &agrave; chacun des concepts de veille &eacute;tudi&eacute;s sont d&eacute;velopp&eacute;es dans les prochaines sous-sections. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><b>3.2 Finalit&eacute;s de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e est la principale finalit&eacute; de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>. Par exemple, Aguilar&nbsp;(1967,&nbsp;p.&nbsp;1)&nbsp;souligne que &laquo;&nbsp;<i>[scanning] would assist management in planning the organization&#39;s future course of action</i> &raquo;. L&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i> permet aussi de soutenir la prise de d&eacute;cision (Du Toit, 2016) ou la r&eacute;solution de probl&egrave;mes (Hambrick, 1981). Enfin, il permet de soutenir la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente en anticipant les menaces &laquo;&nbsp;<i>to avoid strategic surprises</i>&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Wheelen <i>et al.</i>,&nbsp;2014) ou en &eacute;tant une ressource strat&eacute;gique pour l&rsquo;innovation (Du Toit, 2016). En revanche, le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel est totalement absent des d&eacute;finitions de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>analys&eacute;es<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Par cons&eacute;quent, si l&rsquo;on peut constater une tr&egrave;s r&eacute;cente &eacute;volution vers la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente, le concept de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>s&rsquo;inscrirait clairement dans un soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e. Ceci viendrait soutenir le fait que son histoire est intimement li&eacute;e &agrave; l&rsquo;approche de la planification strat&eacute;gique. Selon notre &eacute;tude, l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>se d&eacute;finit donc comme la collecte d&rsquo;information sur l&rsquo;environnement externe d&rsquo;une organisation, dont la connaissance aiderait les managers à planifier la strat&eacute;gie de leur organisation.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><b>3.3 Finalit&eacute;s de la <i>competitive intelligence</i></b></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">La principale finalit&eacute; de la <i>competitive intelligence </i>est l&rsquo;acquisition et le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel. Nous avons class&eacute; dans cette cat&eacute;gorie des mentions telles que : &laquo;&nbsp;<i>achieving competitive advantage</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (Prescott, 1995, p. 43), &laquo;&nbsp;<i>managing the entire competitive battlefield</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (Bensoussan et Densham, 2003, p. 2), &laquo;&nbsp;<i>maintain its competitive advantage in the marketplace</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (Jin, 2008, p. 2) ou encore &laquo;&nbsp;<i>provide a competitive advantage to the enterprise</i>&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Pellissier et Nenzhelele, 2013, p. 5). Dans notre &eacute;tude, la prise de d&eacute;cision appara&icirc;t &eacute;galement comme une finalit&eacute; majeure de la <i>competitive intelligence</i>, qui viserait &agrave; prendre de meilleures d&eacute;cisions<i> </i>(SCIP, 2016) ou des d&eacute;cisions &eacute;clair&eacute;es<i> </i>(Miller, 2009; Pellissier et Nenzhelele, 2013). Le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e appara&icirc;t dans quelques-unes des d&eacute;finitions &eacute;tudi&eacute;es par des phrases telles que &laquo;&nbsp;<i>further the organization&rsquo;s business goals</i>&nbsp;&raquo; (Fleisher et Bensoussan, 2003, p. 16) ou &laquo;&nbsp;<i>reach it&rsquo;s goals</i>&nbsp;&raquo;<i> </i>(SCIP, 2016).&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span></p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Plus r&eacute;cemment, quelques auteurs comme Strauss et Du Toit (2010) et Salvador et Casanova&nbsp;(2013) ont &eacute;tabli des liens entre la <i>competitive intelligence </i>et l&rsquo;innovation. Ainsi, r&eacute;cemment, le concept de <i>competitive intelligence </i>s&rsquo;inscrit dans le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente, puisque l&rsquo;innovation participe &agrave; une strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente. Toutefois, historiquement, il convient de noter que la <i>competitive intelligence </i>privil&eacute;gie comme source d&rsquo;information la surveillance des concurrents et de la dynamique concurrentielle de l&rsquo;entreprise (Fleisher et Blenkhorn, 2003; Jin,&nbsp;2008; Miller, 2009; SCIP, 2016). Elle viserait donc essentiellement l&rsquo;acquisition et le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel, ainsi que la prise de d&eacute;cision. Ce vocabulaire &laquo;&nbsp;de la concurrence&nbsp;&raquo; propre &agrave; la <i>competitive intelligence</i> pourrait, l&agrave; encore, s&rsquo;expliquer par les liens &eacute;troits qu&rsquo;elle entretient historiquement avec l&rsquo;approche du positionnement.&nbsp; </span></span></p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; D&rsquo;apr&egrave;s notre &eacute;tude, la <i>competitive intelligence </i>se d&eacute;finit comme la collecte, l&rsquo;analyse et la diffusion d&rsquo;information portant sur l&rsquo;environnement concurrentiel, dans le but de soutenir les managers &agrave; prendre des d&eacute;cisions ou &agrave; acqu&eacute;rir et maintenir l&rsquo;avantage concurrentiel d&rsquo;une organisation.</span></span></p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px">&nbsp;</p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><b>3.4 Finalit&eacute;s de la veille strat&eacute;gique</b></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">La principale finalit&eacute; de la veille strat&eacute;gique serait le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente d&rsquo;une organisation. Tout d&rsquo;abord, la veille strat&eacute;gique vise &agrave; s&rsquo;adapter aux changements&nbsp;(Thi&eacute;tart,&nbsp;1990; Lesca et Caron-Fasan, 2006), &agrave;&nbsp;accro&icirc;tre la r&eacute;activit&eacute; de l&rsquo;entreprise&nbsp;(Guechtouli,&nbsp;2014), &agrave; cr&eacute;er des opportunit&eacute;s (Lesca, 1997; Dumas,&nbsp;2005), &agrave; r&eacute;duire les risques et les menaces (Lesca, 1997; Bergeron et Hiller, 2002; Dumas, 2005), &agrave; voir<i> </i>les occasions d&rsquo;affaires et ainsi pouvoir &laquo;&nbsp;produire de la signification &agrave; caract&egrave;re strat&eacute;gique au sein de l&rsquo;entreprise&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Ayachi,&nbsp;2007,&nbsp;p.&nbsp;50). Audet&nbsp;(2003) va m&ecirc;me jusqu&rsquo;&agrave; dire que la veille strat&eacute;gique permet d&rsquo;offrir aux dirigeants le moyen de transformer les menaces en opportunit&eacute;s. </span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Les liens avec l&rsquo;innovation sont certes relativement r&eacute;cents, mais tr&egrave;s pr&eacute;sents (Chalus-Sauvannet, 2006; Kamoun-Chouk, 2010; Rajotte, 2013; Lesca et Lesca, 2014; Sargsyan et Chalus-Sauvannet, 2017). &laquo;&nbsp;Le processus d&rsquo;innovation peut prendre naissance gr&acirc;ce &agrave; des informations de terrain recueillies par des traqueurs capables de s&rsquo;&eacute;tonner et, de mani&egrave;re collective, de relier des bouts d&rsquo;informations entre eux&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Ayachi,&nbsp;2007,&nbsp;p.&nbsp;53). Cette capacit&eacute; &agrave; s&rsquo;&eacute;tonner serait une comp&eacute;tence interne qui peut &ecirc;tre d&eacute;velopp&eacute;e gr&acirc;ce &agrave; la veille strat&eacute;gique, lorsqu&rsquo;elle contribue &agrave; &laquo;&nbsp;cr&eacute;er du sens collectivement&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Lesca, 2003), et qui viendrait soutenir la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente d&rsquo;une organisation. Enfin, le caract&egrave;re &laquo;&nbsp;anticipatif&nbsp;&raquo;<u> </u>(Lesca, 1994,&nbsp;1997; Afnor, 1998; Balmisse et Meingan, 2008) de la veille strat&eacute;gique est une finalit&eacute; particuli&egrave;rement mise de l&rsquo;avant, contrairement &agrave; l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>et &agrave; la <i>competitive intelligence. </i>Par exemple, la d&eacute;couverte d&rsquo;une technologie de rupture permettrait d&rsquo;&eacute;viter les surprises (Lesca et Lesca, 2014). </span></span></span></p> <p class="ListePuce" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; La veille strat&eacute;gique a aussi pour finalit&eacute; le soutien &agrave; la prise de d&eacute;cision (Pateyron, 1998; Brouard, 2004; Lesca et Caron-Fasan, 2006; Ayachi, 2007; Bergeron <i>et al.</i>, 2009; Rajotte, 2013; Guechtouli,&nbsp;2014). Dans une pr&eacute;c&eacute;dente revue de la litt&eacute;rature (Anonymis&eacute; <i>et al.</i>, 2018), d&rsquo;apr&egrave;s les &eacute;crits recens&eacute;s, nous avons d&eacute;montr&eacute; qu&rsquo;elle contribue, en th&eacute;orie, &agrave; soutenir la prise de d&eacute;cision de trois mani&egrave;res. En amont, elle permettrait de (1) r&eacute;duire l&rsquo;incertitude et de mieux comprendre l&rsquo;environnement et de (2)&nbsp;d&eacute;tecter des signaux faibles qui nourrissent l&rsquo;intuition des d&eacute;cideurs. En aval, elle servirait &agrave; (3)&nbsp;l&eacute;gitimer des d&eacute;cisions d&eacute;j&agrave; prises ou sur le point d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre prises. Dans la pratique, quelques nuances devraient &ecirc;tre apport&eacute;es sur la r&eacute;duction de l&rsquo;incertitude &agrave; une &eacute;poque o&ugrave; la reddition de compte est importante, ou encore sur la d&eacute;tection des signaux faibles. </span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">La veille strat&eacute;gique aurait enfin aussi pour finalit&eacute; le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e, puisqu&rsquo;elle permet d&rsquo;alimenter le processus de r&eacute;flexion strat&eacute;gique (Audet, 1998; Pateyron, 1998; Kamoun-Chouk,&nbsp;2010), d&rsquo;&laquo;&nbsp;agir dans la poursuite de ses objectifs&nbsp;(&hellip;) et d&rsquo;appuyer la planification strat&eacute;gique et sa mise en &oelig;uvre&nbsp;&raquo;&nbsp;(Brouard,&nbsp;2004, p. 51-53). En revanche, le maintien d&rsquo;un avantage concurrentiel est mentionn&eacute; dans une seule d&eacute;finition &eacute;tudi&eacute;e&nbsp;(Lesca et Caron-Fasan, 2006), que nous interpr&eacute;tons comme une d&eacute;finition globale permettant de rassembler les concepts de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de la <i>competitive intelligence </i>et de veille strat&eacute;gique dans une m&ecirc;me d&eacute;finition de la veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Selon notre &eacute;tude, la veille strat&eacute;gique se voudrait donc &agrave; la fois anticipative et r&eacute;active vis-&agrave;-vis des changements qui surviennent dans l&rsquo;environnement externe de l&rsquo;organisation, et serait d&eacute;finie comme un processus de collecte, d&rsquo;analyse et de diffusion d&rsquo;information, visant &agrave; soutenir la prise de d&eacute;cision des managers et la strat&eacute;gie, &eacute;mergente ou planifi&eacute;e, de leur organisation.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><a name="_Toc517430927"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Conclusion</span></span></b></a></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">S&rsquo;il appara&icirc;t clairement que l&rsquo;aide &agrave; la prise de d&eacute;cision demeure une finalit&eacute; importante dans les d&eacute;finitions de l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i>, de la <i>competitive intelligence </i>et de la veille strat&eacute;gique, notre &eacute;tude a permis de mettre en &eacute;vidence des finalit&eacute;s propres &agrave; chacun de ces trois concepts. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Ainsi, l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i> viserait avant tout le soutien &agrave; la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e, tandis que la <i>competitive intelligence</i> servirait essentiellement &agrave; acqu&eacute;rir et maintenir un avantage concurrentiel, ce qui tend &agrave; confirmer que l&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning</i> continuerait de s&rsquo;inscrire dans l&rsquo;approche de la planification strat&eacute;gique et que la <i>competitive intelligence </i>serait encore influenc&eacute;e par l&rsquo;approche du positionnement. </span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">&Agrave; la fois anticipative et r&eacute;active, et influenc&eacute;e par plusieurs approches en management strat&eacute;gique, la veille strat&eacute;gique servirait avant tout &agrave; soutenir la strat&eacute;gie &eacute;mergente d&rsquo;une organisation, par une meilleure r&eacute;activit&eacute;, une adaptation accrue, une anticipation des &eacute;volutions et la capacit&eacute; &agrave; s&rsquo;&eacute;tonner pour innover; elle contribuerait aussi &agrave; soutenir la strat&eacute;gie planifi&eacute;e d&rsquo;une organisation.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">Ces r&eacute;sultats th&eacute;oriques sont importants pour &eacute;valuer l&rsquo;utilit&eacute; de la veille strat&eacute;gique dans les organisations, puisqu&rsquo;ils peuvent contribuer &agrave; reconsid&eacute;rer les mesures d&rsquo;&eacute;valuation de la veille strat&eacute;gique. En effet, lorsque de telles mesures existent, telles que le retour sur investissement, &laquo;&nbsp;les &eacute;l&eacute;ments &agrave; mesurer d&eacute;pendent de la mission attribu&eacute;e &agrave; l&rsquo;activit&eacute; de veille&nbsp;&raquo; (Roulet <i>et al.</i>,&nbsp;2015,&nbsp;p. 72). N&eacute;anmoins, des &eacute;tudes empiriques seraient pertinentes pour mieux comprendre &agrave; quoi sert la veille strat&eacute;gique dans les organisations, et confirmer ou infirmer ces r&eacute;sultats th&eacute;oriques. D&rsquo;ailleurs, dans le cadre d&rsquo;une recherche doctorale (Anonymis&eacute;, 2020) portant sur la veille strat&eacute;gique dans le secteur public de la sant&eacute; au Qu&eacute;bec, nos r&eacute;sultats d&eacute;montrent que la veille strat&eacute;gique aurait d&rsquo;autres finalit&eacute;s que celles g&eacute;n&eacute;ralement &eacute;nonc&eacute;es dans la litt&eacute;rature scientifique et professionnelle. Dans ce secteur, la veille strat&eacute;gique contribuerait &agrave; am&eacute;liorer la pratique des managers par la r&eacute;flexion, la prise de recul ou par une compr&eacute;hension accrue de leur environnement externe et interne. Elle permettrait aussi aux managers de s&rsquo;inspirer des meilleures pratiques provenant des autres organisations publiques de sant&eacute; et de se comparer aux organisations paires dans un environnement peu concurrentiel.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px">&nbsp;</p> <p style="margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><a name="_Toc517430928"><b><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Bibliographie</span></span></b></a></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-indent:-24pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; AFNOR (Agence fran&ccedil;aise de normalisation), XP X50-053 Avril 1998</span></span> <span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">: Prestations de veille - Prestations de veille et prestations de mise en place d&rsquo;un syst&egrave;me de veille, Afnor, La Plaine Saint-Denis, 1998.</span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-indent:-24pt; margin-bottom:11px"><span style="font-size:11pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;, sans-serif"><span lang="EN-CA" style="font-size:12.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; AGUILAR F. 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A., La strat&eacute;gie d&rsquo;entreprise, Ediscience international, Paris, 1990.</span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">WERNERFELT B., &laquo;&nbsp;A resource-based view of the firm&nbsp;&raquo;, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 5, N<sup> o</sup> 2, 171‑180, 1984.</span></span></span></p> <p class="Paragraphe" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">WHEELEN T. L., HUNGER J. D., HOFFMAN A. N. et BAMFORD C. E., &laquo;&nbsp;Strategic management and business policy : globalization, innovation and sustainability&nbsp;&raquo;, 14&egrave; &eacute;d., Pearson, Boston, 2014.</span></span></span></p> <p style="text-indent:-24pt; margin-bottom:11px">&nbsp;</p> <div>&nbsp; <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /> <div id="ftn1"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif"> Dans notre article, le terme &laquo;&nbsp;veille&nbsp;&raquo; est un terme g&eacute;n&eacute;rique qui englobe tous les concepts de veille. Comme notre article ne traite ni des strat&eacute;gies d&rsquo;influence (lobbying), ni des mesures de protection du patrimoine scientifique, technologique et concurrentielle d&rsquo;une organisation, nous y employons le terme &laquo; veille &raquo; plut&ocirc;t qu&rsquo;&laquo; intelligence &eacute;conomique &raquo;. </span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn2"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif"> Les &eacute;quivalents en fran&ccedil;ais d&rsquo;<i>environmental scanning </i>et de <i>competitive intelligence</i> pr&eacute;sentent une difficult&eacute; de traduction qui r&eacute;duit la port&eacute;e de ces concepts de veille orient&eacute;e vers la strat&eacute;gie. Aussi, nous emploierons le terme en anglais dans le reste de l&rsquo;article.</span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn3"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:10.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a> <span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif">Les pourcentages correspondent au rapport entre le nombre d&rsquo;auteurs qui d&eacute;finissent le concept et le nombre total de d&eacute;finitions (N).&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn4"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="line-height:107%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a> <span lang="FR-CA" style="font-size:8.0pt"><span style="font-family:&quot;Cambria&quot;,serif">Le fait qu&rsquo;aucune d&eacute;finition &eacute;tudi&eacute;e ne mentionne cette finalit&eacute; ne signifie pas qu&rsquo;elle est &eacute;trang&egrave;re au concept, mais plut&ocirc;t qu&rsquo;elle n&rsquo;est pas mise en avant par les auteurs.&nbsp; </span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> </div>