<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0cm; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><b>Introduction</b></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">La transformation de la « Chine en une économie fondée sur la connaissance est l’une des questions de recherche les plus débattues »<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a> (Scherngell, Borowiecki et Hu, 2014, p.82). Il est notoirement admis, que le noyau de l'économie de la connaissance est lié notamment à la production continuelle de l'innovation. Considérée comme puissance technologique encore « émergente »<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, la littérature concernant l’innovation en Chine s’est intensifiée ces dernières années. Différentes études de cas se sont intéressées à l’innovation de ce pays à travers l’analyse des brevets. Cette étude exploratoire vise à analyser s’il y a un lien entre les dépôts massifs de brevets chinois et une démarche de manipulation de la connaissance. Cela nous conduit à formuler la problématique de recherche suivante : peut-on déceler une stratégie de manipulation de la connaissance à travers l’analyse de l’information brevet ?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Nous avons choisi d’analyser ce type d’informations, dans le cadre d’une éventuelle manipulation de la connaissance, car nous considérons que le document brevet se prête à nombre d’analyses, par déduction, induction ou abduction, pour la production d’informations de niveaux très différents. Les métadonnées issues des documents brevets offrent pléthore d’informations utilisables dans des contextes très variés (Jakobiak, 1994). L’appréhension de la documentation brevet s’articule sur deux plans : l’information directe extraite des documents ou de leur description et l’information indirecte tirée de l’analyse statistique (Reymond, 2017). Dans le domaine académique, de nombreuses études statistiques ont été réalisées au moyen des bases de données de brevets au cours de ces dernières années, initialement afin d’en extraire divers indicateurs macro-économiques mesurant l’activité inventive (Hall, 2004).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Dans un premier temps, nous allons nous interroger sur la valeur ou la qualité<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a> des brevets chinois. Ensuite, pour répondre à nos questions de recherche, nous allons analyser les brevets chinois à travers deux axes, à savoir : </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ul>
<li style="margin-left:102px; text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif">l’étude de l’impact du système de propriété intellectuelle sur le développement de l’innovation (Sun, 2003), (Frietsch et Wang, 2007), (Yueh, 2009), (Liang et Xue, 2010) ;</span></span></span></li>
<li style="margin-left:102px; text-align:justify; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif">l’évaluation des capacités d’innovation des entreprises (Zheng et al., 2011), (Pan et al., 2017), (Liu, 2014b).</span></span></span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:28.8pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Les travaux scientifiques que nous allons aborder dans cette étude ont tous un point en commun : l’examen de l’innovation chinoise à travers l’analyse des données relatives aux brevets. Nous pensons que cela nous aidera à dégager une grille de lecture pour apprécier la capacité inventive de ce pays et estimer la proportion des innovations à valeur ajoutée dans les brevets chinois.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol>
<li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px">
<h2><strong><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif">Manipulation, connaissance et brevet d’invention</span></span></span></strong></h2>
</li>
</ol>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Il est connu que la manipulation est l’art de s’imposer en douceur. Ce type d’influence peut être réalisé à travers l’instrumentalisation de la connaissance qui est au demeurant une forme de guerre par l’information. Nous souhaitons d’emblée faire ici une brève définition de ce que nous entendons par la notion de connaissance et de brevet d’invention. Pour la première, on constate que les notions d’information et de connaissance restent souvent assimilées car l’information est le premier stade d’acquisition des connaissances (Guilhon et Moinet, 2016). Toutefois, il existe une différence<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. En effet, Foray (2018, p.10) indique que : </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0.1pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-left:94px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">« La connaissance possède quelque chose de plus que l’information ; elle donne à celui qui la détient une capacité d’action intellectuelle ou physique ; qu’il s’agisse d’actions permettant de modifier le monde qui nous entoure (du savoir "jardiner" au savoir "construire un pont" et au savoir "élaborer une stratégie") ou d’actions permettant de produire de nouvelles connaissances et informations (recherche et création intellectuelle) ».</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Dans cette étude, nous adoptons cette conception des sciences économiques de la notion de « connaissance » et nous la rattachons aux brevets d’invention. Puisque la connaissance constitue une capacité d'action et de maîtrise technique, les brevets sont une forme de capitalisation de ce savoir-faire (<i>know-how</i>). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Ces derniers constituent d’ailleurs une large source de connaissances techniques gratuites<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, <span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:#fafafa">publiés régulièrement par les offices de brevets. </span></span>Ils décrivent, détaillent et dévoilent des technologies employées et fournissent des solutions aux problèmes posés<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. L’accès aux informations technologiques de type brevet s’est développé au cours de ces dernières années grâce au développement progressif des technologies de l’information et de la communication et des moyens électroniques de distribution et de récupération des données.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol start="2">
<li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px">
<h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 18.0pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"><a name="_Toc36316503"></a><strong><a name="_Toc36316583"> La Chine : innovation tous azimuts</a></strong></span></span></span></span></h2>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif">Avec la multiplication des inventions</span></span><span style="font-size:13pt"><span style="line-height:26px"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif">, </span></span></span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif">le nombre d</span><span style="color:black">e demandes de brevets dans le monde s’est considérablement accru lors de ces dernières années</span><a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. Cette prolifération des demandes est notamment due à des impératifs de compétitivité. En témoigne, à titre d’exemple, la course à l’innovation entre les constructeurs de smartphones comme Apple (Etats-Unis), Samsung (Corée du sud) et récemment Huawei</span><a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black"> (Chine). Au-delà des entreprises, les pays ne sont pas en reste puisqu’à travers leur politique, ils encouragent, soutiennent et accompagnent leurs firmes dans leur quête d’innovation</span><a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. Dans les économies contemporaines, la politique industrielle (stratégie pour encourager le développement des secteurs économiques) se traduit souvent sous forme de soutien à l’innovation et à la R&D</span><a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. Comme l’indique le document produit par l’ambassade de France en Chine sur ce sujet, les politiques visant à dynamiser l’innovation en Chine sont nombreuses</span><a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. La mise en place en Chine d’une politique de propriété intellectuelle, visant à valoriser l’innovation et à améliorer la compétitivité nationale,</span><a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black"> notamment </span>en subventionnant les coûts d’obtention de brevets (taxes)<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, en constitue l’un des éléments fondamentaux. <span style="color:black">L’objectif de cette stratégie est de doter les entreprises chinoises d’un portefeuille de brevets équivalents à leurs concurrents étrangers et de devenir </span>un pays leader en matière d’innovation<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Cette politique a engendré un nombre croissant de demandes de brevets dans le pays, atteignant le seuil de 1,2 millions de demandes en 2016<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Comme l’indique la figure ci-dessous, il s’agit du premier pays demandeur de brevets dans le monde.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0cm; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><img src="blob:https://numerev.com/9bfa3c97-88f3-4753-95e3-0425cd294e0a" style="width: 425px; height: 144px;" /></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0cm; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><a name="_Toc36048338"><i>Figure 1. Nombre de demandes de brevets par pays en 2016 (WIPO, 2017)</i></a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">À titre indicatif, en 2015, les demandeurs chinois ont déposé 1 010 448 demandes de brevet, soit 90,8% de plus que les déposants américains et 122,1% de plus que les déposants japonais. Si on se réfère à 15 ans auparavant, les Chinois ont déposé seulement 2,6% du total des dépôts de l’année 2015. Alors que le nombre de demandes déposées par les Chinois a été multiplié par 38, le nombre de demandes déposées par les Américains a doublé et le nombre de demandes déposées par les Japonais a diminué de 7,3%<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Cette volonté hégémonique de la connaissance<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a> qui s’est caractérisée par une hausse significative des demandes a suscité la curiosité scientifique des chercheurs. Naturellement, une augmentation de la quantité de brevets soulève des questions quant à la valeur d'un brevet chinois<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Les scientifiques se sont interrogés si cette évolution est un indicateur fiable de la croissance des capacités d’innovation dans les industries chinoises. Autrement dit, quelle est la valeur ou la qualité des brevets chinois ? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol start="3">
<li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px">
<h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"><a name="_Toc36316504"></a><strong><a name="_Toc36316584"> Expansion des demandes de brevets chinois : quelle qualité pour ces brevets ?</a></strong></span></span></span></h2>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align: justify; margin-top: 16px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 120px;">3.1 <span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"><a name="_Toc36316505"><strong>De la qualité des brevets</strong></a></span></span></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Le terme « qualité d’un brevet » (en anglais « patent quality ») est sujette à de multiples interprétations car la qualité de chaque brevet varie<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Il n’existe pas de consensus concernant une définition univoque ou universelle sur ce terme. Hall et Harhoff (2004) indiquent que la qualité d’un brevet est relative aux respects des conditions légales de son octroi, autrement dit, l’invention doit être « nouvelle », « non-évidente » et « utile ». Ils précisent que « les points de vue économique et juridique suggèrent que les brevets de haute qualité décrivent des inventions véritablement nouvelles, plutôt que des inventions déjà largement utilisées mais non brevetées » (ibid., p.991)<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Outre ces trois conditions légales, les auteurs ajoutent un quatrième critère statutaire relatif à la demande. Ils estiment que la demande de brevet doit divulguer suffisamment de détails sur l’invention pour faciliter l’extension de la connaissance et améliorer d’autres inventions. Le respect de ce critère permet également de satisfaire aux trois premières exigences, dans la mesure où il facilite l’étape de recherche (antériorités) lors du processus d’examen d’un brevet. Enfin, un brevet de « haute qualité » ne devrait guère faire l’objet d’incertitudes quant à sa validité et à l’ampleur de ses revendications. Les caractéristiques spécifiques de l'avancée technique revendiquée doivent être clairement définies et les revendications doivent être, à leur tour, susceptibles d'être retenues lors de procédures judiciaires ultérieures. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h3>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Nous observons que la notion de « qualité des brevets » de Hall et Harhoff (2004) fait référence généralement au respect et/ou à la satisfaction de certains points de la norme de la délivrance d’un brevet d’invention. Graf (2007) épouse les principes de la vision de « qualité d’un brevet » de ces auteurs et souligne que la qualité des brevets peut être abordée sous au moins trois perspectives différentes. Si les deux premières sont semblables aux critères de Hall et Harhoff (la satisfaction des conditions légales de délivrance et la certitude quant à la validité et à la portée des revendications du brevet), Graf rajoute un troisième critère. Celui-ci envisage la qualité des brevets d’un point de vue économique. Ce critère concerne la rentabilité économique de l’entreprise quant aux dépenses consenties dans la recherche et le développement du brevet. Toutefois, l’auteur reconnait que cette dernière perspective est un « indicateur subjectif » car « de nombreux brevets qui n'ont pas de valeur commerciale sont probablement de bonne qualité du point de vue des critères légaux et de la certitude »<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></a> (ibid., p.500). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Par ailleurs, Hall et Harhoff (2004) indiquent que la délivrance de brevets de qualité médiocre est susceptible d'entraîner une augmentation importante du nombre de demandes de brevets. Nous avons constaté précédemment que la Chine enregistre une hausse remarquable de demandes. Est-ce que cette forte demande se fait aux dépens de la qualité ?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol style="margin-left: 40px;">
<li style="list-style-type:none"> 3.2 <strong><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"><a name="_Toc36316506">Forte demande de brevets aux dépens de la qualité ?</a> </span></span></span></strong></li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Plusieurs études ont analysé les déterminants de la croissance du nombre de demandes de brevets chinois mais peu d’entre elles ont fourni des preuves empiriques sur la qualité de ces brevets<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. À partir de ce constat, Dang et Motohashi (2015) ont mené une étude pour savoir s’il y a une relation de cause à effet entre le programme de subvention de brevets en Chine et la détérioration de la qualité des demandes de brevets chinois. Pour examiner l’impact de ce programme sur les demandes en général et sur la qualité des brevets en particulier, Dang et Motohashi ont croisé les données issues de brevets chinois avec des données industrielles et économiques. La fusion de ces sources de données a permis d'étudier la relation entre performance financière et activités d'innovation : « les résultats empiriques montrent que le nombre de brevets est corrélé aux intrants de la R&D et à la production financière, ce qui suggère que les statistiques sur les brevets sont un indicateur informatif des innovations en Chine »<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a> (ibid., p.151). Sur la base de ce principe, les auteurs constatent une augmentation de plus de 30% du nombre de brevets induite par la politique étatique et soulignent que cette dernière a contribué à la dégradation de la qualité des brevets. Ils en concluent que le fait de subventionner les taxes de dépôts de brevets engendre des demandes de brevets de moindre qualité. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Liu, Cao et Song (2014) se sont également questionnés sur les conséquences du « boom » des demandes de brevets chinois survenu ces deux dernières décennies. En analysant les brevets d’invention dans le secteur agricole, ils se sont demandé si la « valeur » (qualité) des brevets agricoles chinois a changé avec la brusque hausse des brevets. Les auteurs rejoignent les observations de Dang et Motohashi (2015) en postulant que « l'essor récent des brevets a quelque chose à voir avec la politique d'innovation du gouvernement, qui prévoit diverses subventions et réductions d'impôts pour les brevets »<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a> (Liu, Cao et Song, 2014, p.119). Ils ajoutent en indiquant que de telles incitations peuvent altérer la nature des brevets et donner lieu à un grand nombre de brevets de qualité médiocre qui ne font que dépasser le seuil de la brevetabilité, sans atteindre l’application industrielle. Tout en soulignant que le phénomène des brevets en Chine est devenu un sujet « brûlant » de recherches universitaires, les auteurs observent avec un regard critique certaines études réalisées sur le sujet portant sur la qualité des brevets en Chine : « Des études antérieures ont examiné les forces motrices de la croissance rapide de la quantité, mais ont négligé l'évolution de la valeur des brevets »<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a> (ibid.). En somme, ils trouvent que les chercheurs utilisent des « indicateurs simples » comme moyen de mesure, tels que les ratios de brevets délivrés. Dans leur étude, Liu, Cao et Song adoptent un nouvel indicateur : le renouvellement du brevet comme mesure indirecte pour mesurer la valeur du brevet dans le secteur de l’agriculture. L’analyse empirique révèle que la diminution de la valeur du brevet chinois dans le secteur agricole n’a pas eu lieu : « notre analyse montre que la hausse du nombre de demandes de brevets n’a pas entraîné une détérioration rapide de la valeur moyenne des brevets chinois »<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a>(ibid., p.120). En abordant les limites de leur recherche, les auteurs attirent l’attention sur le fait que l’étude n’a pas pris en compte d’autres variables de mesure de la qualité du brevet, notamment celles concernant les « citations » des brevets. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Les citations des brevets font référence au nombre de fois qu'un brevet a été cité par des brevets ultérieurs. Lorsqu’un innovateur dépose un brevet, il doit citer les innovations qui lui ont été nécessaires pour innover à son tour. Par conséquent, un plus grand nombre de citations convergeant vers un brevet donné indique qu’il est de meilleure qualité<a href="#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Si plusieurs études ont pris les citations comme indicateur indirect de la qualité des brevets<a href="#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, Fisch, Sandner et Regner (2017, p.23) observent que cet indicateur présente des inconvénients pour traiter la qualité des brevets chinois : « les chercheurs accordent généralement 6,5 ans à une demande de brevet pour recueillir des citations […] Ceci est une limitation particulièrement importante lorsque l'on examine des économies très dynamiques telles que la Chine, dans laquelle l'activité de dépôt de brevets a explosé ces dernières années ». </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"> Face à cet inconvénient, les auteurs adoptent une approche différente pour apprécier la valeur des brevets chinois, il s’agit du « délai de citation ». Ils postulent qu’un brevet qui reçoit sa première citation au cours de la première année suivant la délivrance d'un brevet reçoit un nombre plus élevé de citations à terme. Autrement dit, l'avènement de la première citation est un bon indicateur pour toutes les citations accumulées durant une période de 5 ans. En revanche, un brevet qui reçoit sa première citation longtemps après avoir été délivré reçoit un nombre total de citations inférieur. Ainsi, un délai de citation plus court peut être associé à « une valeur de brevet supérieure, » alors qu'un délai de citation plus long peut être associé à « une valeur de brevet inférieure ».</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Appliquant cette méthodologie à un échantillon de 60 000 familles de brevets, recueilli entre 2000 et 2010, les résultats de l’étude de Fisch, Sandner et Regner montrent que les déposants de brevets chinois connaissent le plus grand retard de citation avec une moyenne de 31,9 mois. Les déposants européens obtiennent de meilleurs résultats avec 27,2 mois. Les déposants américains ont le délai de citation le plus court avec 21,7 mois en moyenne. L’écart se creuse encore plus si on se réfère au nombre de brevets chinois ayant reçu au moins une citation. En effet, seulement 11,9% des brevets chinois ont été cités tandis que 67,1% des brevets américains et 56% des brevets européens ont obtenu une citation. Cela indique que la valeur globale des brevets chinois est faible par rapport à d’autres pays développés. D’autres études fondées sur le nombre de citations par les brevets déposés postérieurement convergent vers ce même constat (Boeing et Mueller, 2019 ; Molnar et Xu, 2016). Même si la Chine encourage activement et de manière proéminente l'innovation en essayant de devenir un innovateur de premier plan, elle est encore loin d'atteindre la frontière mondiale de l'innovation (Fisch, 2016).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Mais force est de constater qu’« au milieu de l'explosion artificielle du nombre de brevets chinois, il existe également des innovations intéressantes en Chine, montrant que la Chine pourrait réussir à passer d'une économie basée sur l'imitation à une économie basée sur l'innovation » (Fisch, Sandner et Regner, 2017, p.31)<a href="#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Cela confirme l'opinion selon laquelle les efforts du gouvernement visant à faire de la Chine un chef de file de l'innovation portent leurs fruits. Parmi ces efforts, il y a le système de propriété intellectuelle mis en place. Nous nous interrogerons, dans ce qui suit, sur l’impact qu’a eu ce système sur le développement de l’innovation et sur la transformation de ce pays en une économie basée sur la connaissance. Pour mieux appréhender cette transformation, nous nous intéresserons aux capacités d’innovation des entreprises.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol start="4">
<li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px">
<h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif">L’impact du système de propriété intellectuelle sur le développement de l’innovation</span></span></span></h2>
</li>
</ol>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Avant 1985, la Chine ne disposait pas de système complet de protection de la propriété intellectuelle régissant les brevets<a href="#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, les technologies étaient développées principalement par des laboratoires étatiques puis transférées de manière gratuite au secteur industriel<a href="#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Dans un tel système, les laboratoires de R&D et l’industrie manufacturière sont séparés. Ils sont reliés entre eux uniquement par des « commandes verticales » (économie planifiée)<a href="#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Au sujet de cette disposition, Song (1997) observe que d’un côté les laboratoires n’accordaient pas beaucoup d’attention aux demandes des fabricants et d’un autre côté le secteur industriel qui était constitué majoritairement d’entreprises étatiques, manquait de motivation forte pour travailler sur des innovations technologiques exigeantes. Rétrospectivement, l’auteur considère cette période comme étant utile à la Chine car « ce modèle d’organisation […] a joué un rôle important dans l’introduction de la science et de la technologie […] Il a fourni des instruments pour la mobilisation massive de ressources et a permis au pays de passer d'une base de science et de technologie plutôt primitive à un système impressionnant et assez complet »<a href="#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a>(ibid., p. 282).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Parmi les efforts généraux consentis par la Chine pour promouvoir les activités novatrices et faciliter le transfert des technologies vers l’industrie, nous trouvons l’élaboration et la mise en place d’un système de propriété intellectuelle. En étudiant les propriétés de ce système, Liang et Xue (2010) estiment que celui-ci repose sur trois principaux facteurs, à savoir : la transition vers une économie de marché, l’ouverture du marché intérieur et le développement des capacités d’innovation locales. Nous observons que ces trois facteurs constituent en même temps des objectifs à atteindre. Le dernier facteur cité nous intéresse particulièrement et nous donne matière à s’interroger : est-ce que le système des brevets chinois a eu l’effet escompté sur le développement des capacités d’innovation du pays ?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Manifestement, depuis l’entrée en vigueur de la loi chinoise sur les brevets au milieu des années 80, les brevets étrangers ainsi que les brevets nationaux (chinois), ont connu une croissance rapide. Le nombre total de brevets délivrés (brevets nationaux et étrangers compris) est passé de 138 en 1985 à 100 156 en 1999<a href="#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. L’étude analytique des brevets déposés en Chine entre 1985<sup> </sup>et 1999 réalisée par Sun (2003) montre qu’il existe des différences notables entre les brevets nationaux et les brevets étrangers. Les brevets étrangers appartiennent principalement à la catégorie des « inventions »<a href="#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, alors que les brevets chinois sont dans la majorité des cas des « modèles d’utilité »<a href="#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a> et/ou des « dessins industriels » (le dessin industriel représente le nouveau dessin, la forme ou le motif d’un produit)<a href="#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Ce résultat de l’étude de Sun est toujours valable si on se réfère aux statistiques de la propriété intellectuelle publiés par l’Organisation mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle<a href="#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. De plus, « seule une petite fraction (4 % en 2016) des brevets chinois est enregistrée aux États-Unis, dans l’Union européenne ou au Japon (brevets triadiques), alors que la majorité des brevets déposés aux États Unis, en Europe et au Japon sont triadiques » (Allard, 2020, p.126).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">De son côté, Yueh (2009) explore autrement l’impact du système de propriété intellectuelle en Chine sur l’innovation. Dans son enquête, l’auteure prend comme facteur de l’innovation, la « fonction de production de brevets » dans le pays : « Les déterminants des brevets peuvent être considérés comme une fonction de production qui suit un processus de Poisson<a href="#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a> » (ibid., p.16)<a href="#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Tout en estimant que les déterminants de l’innovation sont difficiles à évaluer et que les brevets ne constituent qu’une « sous-mesure », les résultats de l’enquête indiquent, toutefois, que « les lois chinoises sur les brevets ont produit de l’innovation et sont motivées par les dépenses d’IDE<a href="#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a> et de R&D »<a href="#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a> (ibid., p26). Sur ce dernier point, l’étude de Frietsch et Wang (2007) montre que les résultats de la R&D, encouragés par la propriété intellectuelle chinoise, ne sont pas suffisamment compétitifs pour les marchés internationaux car de nombreuses activités se limitent au développement et à l’adaptation des produits et technologies existants aux besoins du marché. D’autant plus que la hausse du nombre des brevets dans le pays a été plus rapide que celle des dépenses de R&D, ce qui est paradoxal. Cela pourrait résulter de l’efficacité des incitations publiques au dépôt de brevets (système de propriété intellectuelle avantageux : incitations fiscales, subventions, etc.), plus que des progrès de l’efficacité de la recherche<a href="#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol start="5">
<li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px">
<h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"><a name="_Toc36316510"> <strong>Évaluation des capacités d’innovation des entreprises</strong></a></span></span></span></h2>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align: justify; margin-top: 16px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 120px;"><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif">5.1</span></span></span><strong><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"> Impact du MLP (2006-2020) sur le développement des entreprises </span></span></span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">Par la voie du Plan national de développement des sciences et technologies à moyen et long terme (MLP, 2006-2020), le Conseil d’État chinois a annoncé son ambition de transformer la Chine en une nation innovante à l’horizon 2020<a href="#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="color:black">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></span></a>. Ce programme vient de s’achever l’année dernière. Est-ce que les objectifs que le pays s’est fixés, notamment celui de renforcer la capacité d’innovation propre de ses entreprises, ont été atteints ? </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">En s’intéressant à l’évolution de l’industrie et des technologies clés en Chine, Zheng et al. (2011) explorent six types d’industries à partir de l’analyse des brevets. Ils affirment que « l’information technologique contenue dans les documents brevets fait des brevets un outil efficace pour étudier le développement technologique et sectoriel d’un pays »</span><a href="#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black"> (ibid., p.186). L’étude montre que la répartition de l’industrie chinoise est semblable à celle de l’industrie mondiale. La seule exception vient de l’industrie de l’électrique et de l’électronique (E&E) qui connaît une forte croissance économique. Les résultats de l’enquête indiquent, en effet, que cette industrie pèse plus d’un tiers du total des brevets dans les technologies chinoises. Malgré cette forte production de brevets, les auteurs soulignent que l’évolution technologique dudit secteur (E&E) est « déséquilibré ». L’étude révèle que la quasi-totalité des brevets délivrés (88%) après 2006 est détenue par une seule firme, en l’occurrence, Foxconn Technology Co., Ltd</span><a href="#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">Liu (2014a, p.12) estime que le MLP (2006-2020) a creusé un fossé qui ne cesse de s’agrandir entre « les grandes entreprises, en particulier les entreprises publiques jouissant d’un soutien sans faille de l’Etat pour conquérir les marchés nationaux et internationaux, et les petites et moyennes entreprises (PME) qui restent plus ou moins livrées à elles-mêmes ».</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<ol style="margin-left: 80px;">
<li style="list-style-type:none"><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif">5.2 </span></span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;">Capacité des entreprises dans le secteur de l’énergie renouvelable</span></span></li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">Le secteur de l’énergie renouvelable est l’un des sujets les plus traités dans les travaux portant sur l’évaluation des capacités d’innovation des entreprises chinoises. Pourquoi ce domaine d’activité suscite tant d’intérêt ? </span>Depuis les années 2000, la Chine a entamé une transition énergétique en accroissant considérablement ses investissements dans les sources énergétiques alternatives, comme le nucléaire et les énergies renouvelables. Cette nouvelle orientation coïncide avec une nouvelle révolution industrielle, tirée par l’innovation verte sur lequel le gouvernement souhaite devenir le leader dans l’industrie verte. Afin d’atteindre ses ambitions, le gouvernement chinois a mis en place une politique visant à créer un environnement favorable à l’innovation et à promouvoir l’émergence de nouvelles industries énergétiques pour augmenter la capacité d’innovation de ses entreprises. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Liu (2014b) a étudié les performances et les limites de cette politique chinoise et a pris comme cas d’étude les industries photovoltaïques et éoliennes. L’approche adoptée par l’auteur pour analyser la transition du secteur énergétique du pays est la « policy mix »<a href="#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[47]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Pour l’auteur, la « policy mix » permet de comprendre la performance des politiques d’innovation, par rapport à l’ensemble de l’éventail politique économique. Dans son étude, Liu évalue la capacité d’innovation des entreprises chinoises photovoltaïques et éoliennes à travers les brevets. Les résultats obtenus montrent qu’en termes de brevets obtenus la Chine est le premier pays dans le domaine de l’éolien (7630 brevets) et le troisième pays dans le domaine du photovoltaïque (22363 brevets), derrière les Etats-Unis et le Japon. Cependant, une recherche sur la fabrication et l’installation d’éoliennes, entre 2003 et 2013, indique qu’« aucune entreprise chinoise ne figure dans les dix premiers déposants de brevets chinois dans l’éolien » (ibid., p.71). Le constat est le même pour le photovoltaïque. Les entreprises chinoises ne figurent pas en tête de peloton des déposants mondiaux, sauf dans les modules solaires où il est observé une concentration d’entreprises chinoises. L’auteur estime que malgré la montée en gamme de l’industrie nationale, la capacité d’innovation des entreprises chinoises dans le secteur des énergies renouvelables est « relativement faible ». </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Dans une étude comparative, analysant les entreprises chinoises et les entreprises européennes dans le domaine de l’éolien, Pan et al. (2017) constatent que les entreprises européennes sont à « la pointe des innovations mondiales » en matière d’éoliennes avec notamment un nombre plus élevé de citations de brevets. Pour ce qui est des entreprises chinoises, les auteurs observent que l’augmentation des demandes de brevets dans le secteur de l’éolien, durant ces dernières années, a contribué à rattraper le retard des firmes chinoises dans cette technologie. Toutefois, ils trouvent que d’un côté, les entreprises chinoises ont du mal à appliquer industriellement leur innovation et de l’autre, les brevets chinois déposés manquent particulièrement de citations.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Toujours est-il, l’étude de Liu (2014b) affirme que la Chine est le premier déposant de brevets dans l’éolien. Comment expliquer cette opposition entre le fait que la Chine soit leader en termes de dépôt de brevets et le constat selon lequel les entreprises chinoises spécialisées dans ce domaine manquent de capacité d’innovation ? Pan et al. (2017, p.10) qualifient ce nombre de dépôts conséquent comme étant un « "tsunami de brevets" qui a conduit à une surestimation de la compétence d'innovation des entreprises chinoises »<a href="#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[48]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman",serif"><strong>Conclusion</strong> </span></span></span></h2>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Il est clair que les politiques successives d’innovation chinoises mises en place ces dernières décennies ont eu un impact certain sur le développement de l’innovation dans le pays. Comme nous avons pu le constater à travers notre analyse des études récentes portant sur le sujet, ce développement est à relativiser. La profusion de brevets chinois a engendré une qualité de brevet qui n’a pas atteint les standards des brevets des pays développés. Cela peut expliquer en partie la faiblesse des capacités innovatrices des entreprises chinoises, notamment les PME. Concernant ce dernier point, l’État privilégie le développement de certaines grandes firmes au détriment de ces entreprises. Cette pratique a permis l’émergence d’îlots d’innovation solitaires comme les entreprises Huawei et ZTE dans les domaines des TIC (la 5G)<a href="#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[49]</span></span></span></span></span></a> mais a manqué de créer une industrie nationale basée sur l’innovation. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Ayant voulu devenir chef de file de l’innovation mondiale en l’espace de très peu de temps, la Chine a usé de pratiques pouvant s’apprêter à de la manipulation de la connaissance pour avoir une place dominante dans le domaine de l’innovation. Malgré cet état de fait, ou la quantité n'est pas toujours équivalente à la qualité, il est possible que dans un proche avenir, notamment avec le plan MIC2025<a href="#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[50]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, la Chine rattrape voire dépasse les autres pays développés, tant sur le plan de la production que sur celui de l'innovation avec en corollaire la maîtrise des marchés mondiaux.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<h2 class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><b>Bibliographie</b></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:95px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">ALBERT M. B., AVERY D., NARIN F., MCALLISTER P., « Direct validation of citation counts as indicators of industrially important patents », Research policy, Vol.20, N°3, pp. 251-259, 1991.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">AMBASSADE DE FRANCE A PEKIN, « La nouvelle loi chinoise sur les brevets », consulté le 20 janvier 2019, disponible à l’adresse suivante : <a href="https://cn.ambafrance.org/IMG/pdf/nouvelle_loi_chinoise_sur_les_brevets_et_son_reglement__fev_2010.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://cn.ambafrance.org/IMG/pdf/nouvelle_loi_chinoise_sur_les_brevets_et_son_reglement__fev_2010.pdf</a>, 2010.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">DING L., CHEN Z., « A Review of the Research on Patent Quality in China », International Conference on Arts and Design, Education and Social Sciences (ADESS), 2017.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FISCH C., « Patents and trademarks : Motivations, antecedents, and value in industrialized and emerging markets », Thèse de doctorat en Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, 2016.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FORAY D., L’économie de la connaissance, La Découverte, Paris, 2018.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FRIETSCH R., WANG J., « Intellectual Property Rights and Innovation Activities in China: Evidence from Patents and Publications », Fraunhofer ISI discussion papers innovation systems and policy analysis, N°13, pp. 1-26, 2007.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">SUN Y., « China's national innovation system in transition », Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol.43, N°6, pp. 476-492, 2002.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">SUN Y., « Determinants of foreign patents in China », World Patent Information, Vol.25, N°1, pp. 27-37, 2003.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">TRAJTENBERG M., « A penny for your quotes: patent citations and the value of innovations », The Rand Journal of Economics, Vol.21, N°1, pp. 172-187, 1990.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">VALVERDE U., Méthodologie d’aide à l’innovation par l’exploitation des brevets et des phénomènes physiques impliqués, Thèse de doctorat Sciences des Métiers de l’ingénieur, Ecole nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers (ENSAM), Paris, 2015.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">WIPO, The global innovation index 2017: Innovation feeding the world, Cornell University, INSEAD, Ithaca, Fontainebleau, Genève, 2017.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">WHITE M., « Patent searching: Back to the future how to use patent classification search tools to create better searches », 1st Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA) Conference: Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, 2010.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">YUEH L., « Patent laws and innovation in China. International Review of Law and Economics », Vol.29, N°4, pp. 304-313, 2009.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">ZHENG J., ZHAO Z., ZHANG X., et al., « Industry evolution and key technologies in China based on patent analysis », Scientometrics, Vol.87, N°1, pp. 175-188, 2011.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Sachwald (2007). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Les termes valeur du brevet et qualité du brevet sont souvent utilisés de manière interchangeable comme indicateur de la signification (économique) d'un brevet (Harhoff, Scherer et Vopel, 2003 ; Li, 2012). Nous utilisons donc les termes comme synonymes.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Levet (2001).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir White (2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Valverde (2015).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Guellec, Nadiès et Prager (2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Fragot V., (2017), « L’insatiable ambition de Huawei », <i>Le Monde</i>, publié 26 octobre. Consulté le 28 décembre 2018 à l’adresse suivante : <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2017/10/26/l-insatiable-ambition-de-huawei_5206029_3234.html" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2017/10/26/l-insatiable-ambition-de-huawei_5206029_3234.html</a>. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Si on se réfère à la première puissance économique mondiale, nous constatons que « les Etats-Unis, pendant une assez longue période, ont développé l’innovation à partir du rôle de l’État qui finance la recherche fondamentale pour créer les compétences, le savoir et les industriels qui vont transformer ces compétences et savoirs en produits et services » (Dou, Juillet, Clerc, 2018, p.62).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Lundvall (1992). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Ambassade de France à Pékin (2012). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Ambassade de France à Pékin (2010). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn13">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Dang et Motohashi (2015).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Dans ce cadre Liu (2014a, p.11) indique que « par la voie du Plan national de développement des sciences et technologies à moyen et long terme (MLP, 2006-2020), le Conseil d’Etat chinois a annoncé son ambition de transformer la Chine en une nation innovante à l’horizon 2020 ». </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir WIPO (2017) ; Dutta et al. (2018). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir WIPO (2017). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Drahos et Braithwaite (2004).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Ding et Chen (2017).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Griliches (1998).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="color:black"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><span style="color:black">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black"> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Dang et Motohashi (2015). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Trajtenberg (1990).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Albert et al. (1991) ; Gambardella et al. (2008) ; Hagedoorn et Cloodt (2003) et Harhoff et al. (2003).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a> La loi sur les brevets en Chine a été adoptée en 1984. Elle est entrée en vigueur en 1985 et a été modifiée pour la dernière fois en 2008. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Song (1997). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Sun (2002).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn34">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Sun (2003). </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn35">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Les brevets d'invention font référence à de nouvelles solutions techniques liées à un produit ou à un processus.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn36">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Le modèle d'utilité désigne de nouvelles solutions techniques liées à la forme ou à la structure d'un produit.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn37">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a> À ce propos, Frietsch et Wang (2007, p.11) estiment qu’il y a une différence significative entre les brevets d’invention et les modèles d’utilité : « Les brevets d'invention ont des exigences formelles les plus strictes - correspondant aux conventions internationales - et doivent remplir les critères de nouveauté, d’activité inventive - parfois aussi appelée non-évidence - et d’applicabilité économique. La nouveauté signifie que le même contenu ne doit pas être déposé auprès d'un autre office des brevets dans le monde, ni utilisé dans aucun produit, ni publié dans aucun journal ou livre, où que ce soit dans le monde. L’activité inventive signifie avant tout que le contenu du brevet, qui est de nature exclusivement technique, doit dépasser l’état de la technique déjà connu. En revanche, les exigences formelles relatives aux brevets d’utilité et de conception sont moins strictes, de sorte que des modifications mineures peuvent être appliquées et que le progrès technologique n’est pas nécessairement une condition préalable » (Traduit de l’anglais).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn38">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Organisation mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle (2021), « Statistiques de propriété intellectuelle par pays : Chine », publié en mars, consulté le 30 mai 2021 à l’adresse suivante : <a href="https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/fr/statistics/country_profile/profile.jsp?code=CN" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/fr/statistics/country_profile/profile.jsp?code=CN</a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn39">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Selon Hall et al. (1986), le « processus de Poisson » est un modèle de comptage (processus de comptage d’occurrences) qui est généralement appliqué pour estimer la production de brevets. D’après Hausman et al. (1984), les brevets ne sont pas produits avec certitude. Cela dépend de l’aboutissement ou pas des demandes de brevets par l’Office. Comme le « processus de Poisson » permet de décrire les « évènements » qui se produisent indépendamment et aléatoirement dans le temps, ce processus convient pour estimer les « fonctions de production des brevets ». </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn40">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn41">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Investissements directs étrangers (IDE).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn42">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn43">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Allard (2020).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn44">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir <span style="color:black">Liu (2014a)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn45">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn46">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Foxconn Technology Co., Ltd est un groupe industriel taïwanais dont les activités principales sont la recherche et le développement, la fabrication et la vente de produits informatiques, de communication et de produits électroniques grand public. Il est principalement implanté en Chine. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn47">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref47" name="_ftn47" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[47]</span></span></span></span></span></a> « La <i>policy mix</i> d’innovation (ou le dosage des politiques d’innovation) représente une synthèse des politiques agissant sur les principaux domaines influant la performance d’innovation d’un pays » (Liu, 2014b, p.58).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn48">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref48" name="_ftn48" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[48]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Traduit de l’anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn49">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref49" name="_ftn49" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[49]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Voir Iplytics (2019).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<div id="ftn50">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref50" name="_ftn50" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:"Times New Roman", serif">[50]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Le plan Made in China (MIC), lancé en 2015, a pour objectif que la Chine devienne à l’horizon 2025, leader dans certains secteurs où elle accuse un retard par rapport aux pays avancés comme, entre autres, les technologies de l’information, la robotique, les énergies durables et la biomédecine.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p>
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