<h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0cm; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><b>Introduction</b></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">La transformation de la &laquo;&nbsp;Chine en une &eacute;conomie fond&eacute;e sur la connaissance est l&rsquo;une des questions de recherche les plus d&eacute;battues&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;(Scherngell, Borowiecki et Hu, 2014, p.82). Il est notoirement admis, que le noyau de l&#39;&eacute;conomie de la connaissance est li&eacute; notamment &agrave; la production continuelle de l&#39;innovation. Consid&eacute;r&eacute;e comme puissance technologique encore &laquo;&nbsp;&eacute;mergente&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, la litt&eacute;rature concernant l&rsquo;innovation en Chine s&rsquo;est intensifi&eacute;e ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es. Diff&eacute;rentes &eacute;tudes de cas se sont int&eacute;ress&eacute;es &agrave; l&rsquo;innovation de ce pays &agrave; travers l&rsquo;analyse des brevets. Cette &eacute;tude exploratoire vise &agrave; analyser s&rsquo;il y a un lien entre les d&eacute;p&ocirc;ts massifs de brevets chinois et une d&eacute;marche de manipulation de la connaissance. Cela nous conduit &agrave; formuler la probl&eacute;matique de recherche suivante&nbsp;: peut-on d&eacute;celer une strat&eacute;gie de manipulation de la connaissance &agrave; travers l&rsquo;analyse de l&rsquo;information brevet&nbsp;?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Nous avons choisi d&rsquo;analyser ce type d&rsquo;informations, dans le cadre d&rsquo;une &eacute;ventuelle manipulation de la connaissance, car nous consid&eacute;rons que le document brevet se pr&ecirc;te à nombre d&rsquo;analyses, par d&eacute;duction, induction ou abduction, pour la production d&rsquo;informations de niveaux tr&egrave;s diff&eacute;rents. Les m&eacute;tadonn&eacute;es issues des documents brevets offrent pl&eacute;thore d&rsquo;informations utilisables dans des contextes tr&egrave;s vari&eacute;s (Jakobiak, 1994). L&rsquo;appr&eacute;hension de la documentation brevet s&rsquo;articule sur deux plans&nbsp;: l&rsquo;information directe extraite des documents ou de leur description et l&rsquo;information indirecte tir&eacute;e de l&rsquo;analyse statistique&nbsp;(Reymond, 2017).&nbsp;&nbsp;Dans le domaine acad&eacute;mique, de nombreuses &eacute;tudes statistiques ont &eacute;t&eacute; r&eacute;alis&eacute;es au moyen des bases de donn&eacute;es de brevets au cours de ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es, initialement afin d&rsquo;en extraire divers indicateurs macro-&eacute;conomiques mesurant l&rsquo;activit&eacute; inventive (Hall, 2004).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Dans un premier temps, nous allons nous interroger sur la valeur ou la qualit&eacute;<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;des brevets chinois. Ensuite, pour r&eacute;pondre &agrave; nos questions de recherche, nous allons analyser les brevets chinois &agrave; travers deux axes, &agrave; savoir :&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ul> <li style="margin-left:102px; text-align:justify"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">l&rsquo;&eacute;tude de l&rsquo;impact du syst&egrave;me de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle sur le d&eacute;veloppement de l&rsquo;innovation (Sun, 2003), (Frietsch et Wang, 2007), (Yueh, 2009), (Liang et Xue, 2010) ;</span></span></span></li> <li style="margin-left:102px; text-align:justify; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">l&rsquo;&eacute;valuation des capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation des entreprises (Zheng et al., 2011), (Pan et al., 2017), (Liu, 2014b).</span></span></span></li> </ul> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:28.8pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Les travaux scientifiques que nous allons aborder dans cette &eacute;tude ont tous un point en commun&nbsp;: l&rsquo;examen de l&rsquo;innovation chinoise &agrave; travers l&rsquo;analyse des donn&eacute;es relatives aux brevets. Nous pensons que cela nous aidera &agrave; d&eacute;gager une grille de lecture pour appr&eacute;cier la capacit&eacute; inventive de ce pays et estimer la proportion des innovations &agrave; valeur ajout&eacute;e dans les brevets chinois.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol> <li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px"> <h2><strong><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">Manipulation, connaissance&nbsp;et brevet d&rsquo;invention</span></span></span></strong></h2> </li> </ol> <h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Il est connu que la manipulation est l&rsquo;art de s&rsquo;imposer en douceur. Ce type d&rsquo;influence peut &ecirc;tre r&eacute;alis&eacute; &agrave; travers l&rsquo;instrumentalisation de la connaissance qui est au demeurant une forme de guerre par l&rsquo;information. Nous souhaitons d&rsquo;embl&eacute;e faire ici une br&egrave;ve d&eacute;finition de ce que nous entendons par la notion de connaissance et de brevet d&rsquo;invention. Pour la premi&egrave;re, on constate que les notions d&rsquo;information et de connaissance restent souvent assimil&eacute;es car l&rsquo;information est le premier stade d&rsquo;acquisition des connaissances (Guilhon et Moinet, 2016). Toutefois, il existe une diff&eacute;rence<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. En effet, Foray (2018, p.10) indique que&nbsp;:&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:0.1pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-left:94px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">&laquo;&nbsp;La connaissance poss&egrave;de quelque chose de plus que l&rsquo;information ; elle donne &agrave; celui qui la d&eacute;tient une capacit&eacute; d&rsquo;action intellectuelle ou physique ;&nbsp;qu&rsquo;il s&rsquo;agisse d&rsquo;actions permettant de modifier le monde qui nous entoure (du savoir &quot;jardiner&quot; au savoir &quot;construire un pont&quot; et au savoir &quot;&eacute;laborer une strat&eacute;gie&quot;) ou d&rsquo;actions permettant de produire de nouvelles connaissances et informations (recherche et cr&eacute;ation intellectuelle)&nbsp;&raquo;.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Dans cette &eacute;tude, nous adoptons cette conception des sciences &eacute;conomiques de la notion de &laquo;&nbsp;connaissance&nbsp;&raquo; et nous la rattachons aux brevets d&rsquo;invention. Puisque la connaissance constitue une capacit&eacute; d&#39;action et de ma&icirc;trise technique, les brevets sont une forme de capitalisation de ce savoir-faire (<i>know-how</i>).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Ces derniers constituent d&rsquo;ailleurs une large source de connaissances techniques gratuites<a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a>,&nbsp;<span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:#fafafa">publi&eacute;s r&eacute;guli&egrave;rement par les offices de brevets.&nbsp;</span></span>Ils d&eacute;crivent, d&eacute;taillent et d&eacute;voilent des technologies employ&eacute;es et fournissent des solutions aux probl&egrave;mes pos&eacute;s<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. L&rsquo;acc&egrave;s aux informations technologiques de type brevet s&rsquo;est d&eacute;velopp&eacute; au cours de ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es gr&acirc;ce au d&eacute;veloppement progressif des technologies de l&rsquo;information et de la communication et des moyens &eacute;lectroniques de distribution et de r&eacute;cup&eacute;ration des donn&eacute;es.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol start="2"> <li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px"> <h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="tab-stops:list 18.0pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"><a name="_Toc36316503"></a><strong><a name="_Toc36316583"> &nbsp;La Chine&nbsp;: innovation tous azimuts</a></strong></span></span></span></span></h2> </li> </ol> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif">Avec la multiplication des inventions</span></span><span style="font-size:13pt"><span style="line-height:26px"><span style="font-family:TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif">,&nbsp;</span></span></span><span style="font-family:TimesNewRomanPSMT, serif">le nombre d</span><span style="color:black">e demandes de brevets dans le monde s&rsquo;est consid&eacute;rablement accru lors de ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es</span><a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. Cette prolif&eacute;ration des demandes est notamment due &agrave; des imp&eacute;ratifs de comp&eacute;titivit&eacute;. En t&eacute;moigne, &agrave; titre d&rsquo;exemple, la course &agrave; l&rsquo;innovation entre les constructeurs de smartphones comme Apple (Etats-Unis), Samsung (Cor&eacute;e du sud) et r&eacute;cemment Huawei</span><a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">&nbsp;(Chine). Au-del&agrave; des entreprises, les pays ne sont pas en reste puisqu&rsquo;&agrave; travers leur politique, ils encouragent, soutiennent et accompagnent leurs firmes dans leur qu&ecirc;te d&rsquo;innovation</span><a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. Dans les &eacute;conomies contemporaines, la politique industrielle (strat&eacute;gie pour encourager le d&eacute;veloppement des secteurs &eacute;conomiques) se traduit souvent sous forme de soutien &agrave; l&rsquo;innovation et &agrave; la R&amp;D</span><a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. Comme l&rsquo;indique le document produit par l&rsquo;ambassade de France en Chine sur ce sujet, les politiques visant &agrave; dynamiser l&rsquo;innovation en Chine sont nombreuses</span><a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">. La mise en place en Chine d&rsquo;une politique de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle, visant &agrave; valoriser l&rsquo;innovation et &agrave; am&eacute;liorer la comp&eacute;titivit&eacute; nationale,</span><a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">&nbsp;notamment&nbsp;</span>en subventionnant les co&ucirc;ts d&rsquo;obtention de brevets (taxes)<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, en constitue l&rsquo;un des &eacute;l&eacute;ments fondamentaux.&nbsp;<span style="color:black">L&rsquo;objectif de cette strat&eacute;gie est de doter les entreprises chinoises d&rsquo;un portefeuille de brevets &eacute;quivalents &agrave; leurs concurrents &eacute;trangers et de devenir&nbsp;</span>un pays leader en mati&egrave;re d&rsquo;innovation<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Cette politique a engendr&eacute; un nombre croissant de demandes de brevets dans le pays, atteignant le seuil de 1,2 millions de demandes en 2016<a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Comme l&rsquo;indique la figure ci-dessous, il s&rsquo;agit du premier pays demandeur de brevets dans le monde.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0cm; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><img src="blob:https://numerev.com/9bfa3c97-88f3-4753-95e3-0425cd294e0a" style="width: 425px; height: 144px;" /></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p align="center" style="text-align:center; text-indent:0cm; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><a name="_Toc36048338"><i>Figure 1. Nombre de demandes de brevets par pays en 2016 (WIPO, 2017)</i></a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">&Agrave; titre indicatif, en 2015, les demandeurs chinois ont d&eacute;pos&eacute; 1 010 448 demandes de brevet, soit 90,8% de plus que les d&eacute;posants am&eacute;ricains et 122,1% de plus que les d&eacute;posants japonais. Si on se r&eacute;f&egrave;re &agrave; 15 ans auparavant, les Chinois ont d&eacute;pos&eacute; seulement 2,6% du total des d&eacute;p&ocirc;ts de l&rsquo;ann&eacute;e 2015. Alors que le nombre de demandes d&eacute;pos&eacute;es par les Chinois a &eacute;t&eacute; multipli&eacute; par 38, le nombre de demandes d&eacute;pos&eacute;es par les Am&eacute;ricains a doubl&eacute; et le nombre de demandes d&eacute;pos&eacute;es par les Japonais a diminu&eacute; de 7,3%<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Cette volont&eacute; h&eacute;g&eacute;monique de la connaissance<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;qui s&rsquo;est caract&eacute;ris&eacute;e par une hausse significative des demandes a suscit&eacute; la curiosit&eacute; scientifique des chercheurs. Naturellement, une augmentation de la quantit&eacute; de brevets soul&egrave;ve des questions quant &agrave; la valeur d&#39;un brevet chinois<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Les scientifiques se sont interrog&eacute;s si cette &eacute;volution est un indicateur fiable de la croissance des capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation dans les industries chinoises. Autrement dit, quelle est la valeur ou la qualit&eacute; des brevets chinois&nbsp;?&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol start="3"> <li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px"> <h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"><a name="_Toc36316504"></a><strong><a name="_Toc36316584"> Expansion des demandes de brevets chinois&nbsp;: quelle qualit&eacute; pour ces brevets&nbsp;?</a></strong></span></span></span></h2> </li> </ol> <p style="text-align: justify; margin-top: 16px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 120px;">3.1&nbsp;<span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"><a name="_Toc36316505"><strong>De la qualit&eacute; des brevets</strong></a></span></span></span></p> <h3 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Le terme &laquo;&nbsp;qualit&eacute; d&rsquo;un brevet&nbsp;&raquo; (en anglais &laquo;&nbsp;patent quality&nbsp;&raquo;) est sujette &agrave; de multiples interpr&eacute;tations car la qualit&eacute; de chaque brevet varie<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Il n&rsquo;existe pas de consensus concernant une d&eacute;finition univoque ou universelle sur ce terme. Hall et Harhoff (2004) indiquent que la qualit&eacute; d&rsquo;un brevet est relative aux respects des conditions l&eacute;gales de son octroi, autrement dit, l&rsquo;invention doit &ecirc;tre &laquo;&nbsp;nouvelle&nbsp;&raquo;, &laquo;&nbsp;non-&eacute;vidente&nbsp;&raquo; et &laquo;&nbsp;utile&nbsp;&raquo;. Ils pr&eacute;cisent que &laquo;&nbsp;les points de vue &eacute;conomique et juridique sugg&egrave;rent que les brevets de haute qualit&eacute; d&eacute;crivent des inventions v&eacute;ritablement nouvelles, plut&ocirc;t que des inventions d&eacute;j&agrave; largement utilis&eacute;es mais non brevet&eacute;es&nbsp;&raquo; (ibid., p.991)<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Outre ces trois conditions l&eacute;gales, les auteurs ajoutent un quatri&egrave;me crit&egrave;re statutaire relatif &agrave; la demande. Ils estiment que la demande de brevet doit divulguer suffisamment de d&eacute;tails sur l&rsquo;invention pour faciliter l&rsquo;extension de la connaissance et am&eacute;liorer d&rsquo;autres inventions. Le respect de ce crit&egrave;re permet &eacute;galement de satisfaire aux trois premi&egrave;res exigences, dans la mesure o&ugrave; il facilite l&rsquo;&eacute;tape de recherche (ant&eacute;riorit&eacute;s) lors du processus d&rsquo;examen d&rsquo;un brevet. Enfin, un brevet de &laquo;&nbsp;haute qualit&eacute;&nbsp;&raquo; ne devrait gu&egrave;re faire l&rsquo;objet d&rsquo;incertitudes quant &agrave; sa validit&eacute; et &agrave; l&rsquo;ampleur de ses revendications. Les caract&eacute;ristiques sp&eacute;cifiques de l&#39;avanc&eacute;e technique revendiqu&eacute;e doivent &ecirc;tre clairement d&eacute;finies et les revendications doivent &ecirc;tre, &agrave; leur tour, susceptibles d&#39;&ecirc;tre retenues lors de proc&eacute;dures judiciaires ult&eacute;rieures.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h3> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Nous observons que la notion de &laquo;&nbsp;qualit&eacute; des brevets&nbsp;&raquo; de Hall et Harhoff (2004) fait r&eacute;f&eacute;rence g&eacute;n&eacute;ralement au respect et/ou &agrave; la satisfaction de certains points de la norme de la d&eacute;livrance d&rsquo;un brevet d&rsquo;invention. Graf (2007) &eacute;pouse les principes de la vision de &laquo;&nbsp;qualit&eacute; d&rsquo;un brevet&nbsp;&raquo; de ces auteurs et souligne que la qualit&eacute; des brevets peut &ecirc;tre abord&eacute;e sous au moins trois perspectives diff&eacute;rentes. Si les deux premi&egrave;res sont semblables aux crit&egrave;res de Hall et Harhoff (la satisfaction des conditions l&eacute;gales de d&eacute;livrance et la certitude quant &agrave; la validit&eacute; et &agrave; la port&eacute;e des revendications du brevet), Graf rajoute un troisi&egrave;me crit&egrave;re. Celui-ci envisage la qualit&eacute; des brevets d&rsquo;un point de vue &eacute;conomique. Ce crit&egrave;re concerne la rentabilit&eacute; &eacute;conomique de l&rsquo;entreprise quant aux d&eacute;penses consenties dans la recherche et le d&eacute;veloppement du brevet. Toutefois, l&rsquo;auteur reconnait que cette derni&egrave;re perspective est un &laquo;&nbsp;indicateur&nbsp;subjectif&nbsp;&raquo; car &laquo;&nbsp;de nombreux brevets qui n&#39;ont pas de valeur commerciale sont probablement de bonne qualit&eacute; du point de vue des crit&egrave;res l&eacute;gaux et de la certitude&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;(ibid., p.500).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Par ailleurs, Hall et Harhoff (2004) indiquent que la d&eacute;livrance de brevets de qualit&eacute; m&eacute;diocre est susceptible d&#39;entra&icirc;ner une augmentation importante du nombre de demandes de brevets. Nous avons constat&eacute; pr&eacute;c&eacute;demment que la Chine enregistre une hausse remarquable de demandes. Est-ce que cette forte demande se fait aux d&eacute;pens de la qualit&eacute;&nbsp;?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol style="margin-left: 40px;"> <li style="list-style-type:none">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;3.2 ​<strong><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"><a name="_Toc36316506">Forte demande de brevets aux d&eacute;pens de la qualit&eacute;&nbsp;?</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></span></span></strong></li> </ol> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Plusieurs &eacute;tudes ont analys&eacute; les d&eacute;terminants de la croissance du nombre de demandes de brevets chinois mais peu d&rsquo;entre elles ont fourni des preuves empiriques sur la qualit&eacute; de ces brevets<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. &Agrave; partir de ce constat, Dang et Motohashi (2015) ont men&eacute; une &eacute;tude pour savoir s&rsquo;il y a une relation de cause &agrave; effet entre le programme de subvention de brevets en Chine et la d&eacute;t&eacute;rioration de la qualit&eacute; des demandes de brevets chinois. Pour examiner l&rsquo;impact de ce programme sur les demandes en g&eacute;n&eacute;ral et sur la qualit&eacute; des brevets en particulier, Dang et Motohashi ont crois&eacute; les donn&eacute;es issues de brevets chinois avec des donn&eacute;es industrielles et &eacute;conomiques. La fusion de ces sources de donn&eacute;es a permis d&#39;&eacute;tudier la relation entre performance financi&egrave;re et activit&eacute;s d&#39;innovation&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;les r&eacute;sultats empiriques montrent que le nombre de brevets est corr&eacute;l&eacute; aux intrants de la R&amp;D et &agrave; la production financi&egrave;re, ce qui sugg&egrave;re que les statistiques sur les brevets sont un indicateur informatif des innovations en Chine&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;(ibid., p.151). Sur la base de ce principe, les auteurs constatent une augmentation de plus de 30% du nombre de brevets induite par la politique &eacute;tatique et soulignent que cette derni&egrave;re a contribu&eacute; &agrave; la d&eacute;gradation de la qualit&eacute; des brevets. Ils en concluent que le fait de subventionner les taxes de d&eacute;p&ocirc;ts de brevets engendre des demandes de brevets de moindre qualit&eacute;.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Liu, Cao et Song (2014) se sont &eacute;galement questionn&eacute;s sur les cons&eacute;quences du &laquo;&nbsp;boom&nbsp;&raquo; des demandes de brevets chinois survenu ces deux derni&egrave;res d&eacute;cennies. En analysant les brevets d&rsquo;invention dans le secteur agricole, ils se sont demand&eacute; si la &laquo;&nbsp;valeur&nbsp;&raquo; (qualit&eacute;) des brevets agricoles chinois a chang&eacute; avec la brusque hausse des brevets. Les auteurs rejoignent les observations de Dang et Motohashi (2015) en postulant que &laquo;&nbsp;l&#39;essor r&eacute;cent des brevets a quelque chose &agrave; voir avec la politique d&#39;innovation du gouvernement, qui pr&eacute;voit diverses subventions et r&eacute;ductions d&#39;imp&ocirc;ts pour les brevets&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;(Liu, Cao et Song, 2014, p.119). Ils ajoutent en indiquant que de telles incitations peuvent alt&eacute;rer la nature des brevets et donner lieu &agrave; un grand nombre de brevets de qualit&eacute; m&eacute;diocre qui ne font que d&eacute;passer le seuil de la brevetabilit&eacute;, sans atteindre l&rsquo;application industrielle. Tout en soulignant que le ph&eacute;nom&egrave;ne des brevets en Chine est devenu un sujet &laquo;&nbsp;br&ucirc;lant&nbsp;&raquo; de recherches universitaires, les auteurs observent avec un regard critique certaines &eacute;tudes r&eacute;alis&eacute;es sur le sujet portant sur la qualit&eacute; des brevets en Chine&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;Des &eacute;tudes ant&eacute;rieures ont examin&eacute; les forces motrices de la croissance rapide de la quantit&eacute;, mais ont n&eacute;glig&eacute; l&#39;&eacute;volution de la valeur des brevets&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;(ibid.). En somme, ils trouvent que les chercheurs utilisent des &laquo;&nbsp;indicateurs simples&nbsp;&raquo; comme moyen de mesure, tels que les ratios de brevets d&eacute;livr&eacute;s. Dans leur &eacute;tude, Liu, Cao et Song adoptent un nouvel indicateur&nbsp;: le renouvellement du brevet comme mesure indirecte pour mesurer la valeur du brevet dans le secteur de l&rsquo;agriculture. L&rsquo;analyse empirique r&eacute;v&egrave;le que la diminution de la valeur du brevet chinois dans le secteur agricole n&rsquo;a pas eu lieu&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;notre analyse montre que la hausse du nombre de demandes de brevets n&rsquo;a pas entra&icirc;n&eacute; une d&eacute;t&eacute;rioration rapide de la valeur moyenne des brevets chinois&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a>(ibid., p.120). En abordant les limites de leur recherche, les auteurs attirent l&rsquo;attention sur le fait que l&rsquo;&eacute;tude n&rsquo;a pas pris en compte d&rsquo;autres variables de mesure de la qualit&eacute; du brevet, notamment celles concernant les &laquo;&nbsp;citations&nbsp;&raquo; des brevets.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Les citations des brevets font r&eacute;f&eacute;rence au nombre de fois qu&#39;un brevet a &eacute;t&eacute; cit&eacute; par des brevets ult&eacute;rieurs. Lorsqu&rsquo;un innovateur d&eacute;pose un brevet, il doit citer les innovations qui lui ont &eacute;t&eacute; n&eacute;cessaires pour innover &agrave; son tour. Par cons&eacute;quent, un plus grand nombre de citations convergeant vers un brevet donn&eacute; indique qu&rsquo;il est de meilleure qualit&eacute;<a href="#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Si plusieurs &eacute;tudes ont pris les citations comme indicateur indirect de la qualit&eacute; des brevets<a href="#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, Fisch, Sandner et Regner (2017, p.23) observent que cet indicateur pr&eacute;sente des inconv&eacute;nients pour traiter la qualit&eacute; des brevets chinois&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;les chercheurs accordent g&eacute;n&eacute;ralement 6,5 ans &agrave; une demande de brevet pour recueillir des citations [&hellip;] Ceci est une limitation particuli&egrave;rement importante lorsque l&#39;on examine des &eacute;conomies tr&egrave;s dynamiques telles que la Chine, dans laquelle l&#39;activit&eacute; de d&eacute;p&ocirc;t de brevets a explos&eacute; ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es&nbsp;&raquo;.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">&nbsp;&nbsp;Face &agrave; cet inconv&eacute;nient, les auteurs adoptent une approche diff&eacute;rente pour appr&eacute;cier la valeur des brevets chinois, il s&rsquo;agit du &laquo;&nbsp;d&eacute;lai de citation&nbsp;&raquo;. Ils postulent qu&rsquo;un brevet qui re&ccedil;oit sa premi&egrave;re citation au cours de la premi&egrave;re ann&eacute;e suivant la d&eacute;livrance d&#39;un brevet re&ccedil;oit un nombre plus &eacute;lev&eacute; de citations &agrave; terme. Autrement dit, l&#39;av&egrave;nement de la premi&egrave;re citation est un bon indicateur pour toutes les citations accumul&eacute;es durant une p&eacute;riode de 5 ans. En revanche, un brevet qui re&ccedil;oit sa premi&egrave;re citation longtemps apr&egrave;s avoir &eacute;t&eacute; d&eacute;livr&eacute; re&ccedil;oit un nombre total de citations inf&eacute;rieur. Ainsi, un d&eacute;lai de citation plus court peut &ecirc;tre associ&eacute; &agrave; &laquo;&nbsp;une valeur de brevet sup&eacute;rieure,&nbsp;&raquo; alors qu&#39;un d&eacute;lai de citation plus long peut &ecirc;tre associ&eacute; &agrave; &laquo;&nbsp;une valeur de brevet inf&eacute;rieure&nbsp;&raquo;.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Appliquant cette m&eacute;thodologie &agrave; un &eacute;chantillon de 60 000 familles de brevets, recueilli entre 2000 et 2010, les r&eacute;sultats de l&rsquo;&eacute;tude de Fisch, Sandner et Regner montrent que les d&eacute;posants de brevets chinois connaissent le plus grand retard de citation avec une moyenne de 31,9 mois. Les d&eacute;posants europ&eacute;ens obtiennent de meilleurs r&eacute;sultats avec 27,2 mois. Les d&eacute;posants am&eacute;ricains ont le d&eacute;lai de citation le plus court avec 21,7 mois en moyenne. L&rsquo;&eacute;cart se creuse encore plus si on se r&eacute;f&egrave;re au nombre de brevets chinois ayant re&ccedil;u au moins une citation. En effet, seulement 11,9% des brevets chinois ont &eacute;t&eacute; cit&eacute;s tandis que 67,1% des brevets am&eacute;ricains et 56% des brevets europ&eacute;ens ont obtenu une citation. Cela indique que la valeur globale des brevets chinois est faible par rapport &agrave; d&rsquo;autres pays d&eacute;velopp&eacute;s. D&rsquo;autres &eacute;tudes fond&eacute;es sur le nombre de citations par les brevets d&eacute;pos&eacute;s post&eacute;rieurement convergent vers ce m&ecirc;me constat (Boeing et Mueller, 2019&nbsp;; Molnar et Xu, 2016). M&ecirc;me si la Chine encourage activement et de mani&egrave;re pro&eacute;minente l&#39;innovation en essayant de devenir un innovateur de premier plan, elle est encore loin d&#39;atteindre la fronti&egrave;re mondiale de l&#39;innovation (Fisch, 2016).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Mais force est de constater qu&rsquo;&laquo;&nbsp;au milieu de l&#39;explosion artificielle du nombre de brevets chinois, il existe &eacute;galement des innovations int&eacute;ressantes en Chine, montrant que la Chine pourrait r&eacute;ussir &agrave; passer d&#39;une &eacute;conomie bas&eacute;e sur l&#39;imitation &agrave; une &eacute;conomie bas&eacute;e sur l&#39;innovation&nbsp;&raquo; (Fisch, Sandner et Regner, 2017, p.31)<a href="#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Cela confirme l&#39;opinion selon laquelle les efforts du gouvernement visant &agrave; faire de la Chine un chef de file de l&#39;innovation portent leurs fruits. Parmi ces efforts, il y a le syst&egrave;me de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle mis en place. Nous nous interrogerons, dans ce qui suit, sur l&rsquo;impact qu&rsquo;a eu ce syst&egrave;me sur le d&eacute;veloppement de l&rsquo;innovation et sur la transformation de ce pays en une &eacute;conomie bas&eacute;e sur la connaissance. Pour mieux appr&eacute;hender cette transformation, nous nous int&eacute;resserons aux capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation des entreprises.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol start="4"> <li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px"> <h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">L&rsquo;impact du syst&egrave;me de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle sur le d&eacute;veloppement de l&rsquo;innovation</span></span></span></h2> </li> </ol> <h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Avant 1985, la Chine ne disposait pas de syst&egrave;me complet de protection de la propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle r&eacute;gissant les brevets<a href="#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, les technologies &eacute;taient d&eacute;velopp&eacute;es principalement par des laboratoires &eacute;tatiques puis transf&eacute;r&eacute;es de mani&egrave;re gratuite au secteur industriel<a href="#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Dans un tel syst&egrave;me, les laboratoires de R&amp;D et l&rsquo;industrie manufacturi&egrave;re sont s&eacute;par&eacute;s. Ils sont reli&eacute;s entre eux uniquement par des &laquo;&nbsp;commandes verticales&nbsp;&raquo; (&eacute;conomie planifi&eacute;e)<a href="#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Au sujet de cette disposition, Song (1997) observe que d&rsquo;un c&ocirc;t&eacute; les laboratoires n&rsquo;accordaient pas beaucoup d&rsquo;attention aux demandes des fabricants et d&rsquo;un autre c&ocirc;t&eacute; le secteur industriel qui &eacute;tait constitu&eacute; majoritairement d&rsquo;entreprises &eacute;tatiques, manquait de motivation forte pour travailler sur des innovations technologiques exigeantes. R&eacute;trospectivement, l&rsquo;auteur consid&egrave;re cette p&eacute;riode comme &eacute;tant utile &agrave; la Chine car &laquo;&nbsp;ce mod&egrave;le d&rsquo;organisation [&hellip;] a jou&eacute; un r&ocirc;le important dans l&rsquo;introduction de la science et de la technologie [&hellip;] Il a fourni des instruments pour la mobilisation massive de ressources et a permis au pays de passer d&#39;une base de science et de technologie plut&ocirc;t primitive &agrave; un syst&egrave;me impressionnant et assez complet&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a>(ibid., p. 282).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Parmi les efforts g&eacute;n&eacute;raux consentis par la Chine pour promouvoir les activit&eacute;s novatrices et faciliter le transfert des technologies vers l&rsquo;industrie, nous trouvons l&rsquo;&eacute;laboration et la mise en place d&rsquo;un syst&egrave;me de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle. En &eacute;tudiant les propri&eacute;t&eacute;s de ce syst&egrave;me, Liang et Xue (2010) estiment que celui-ci repose sur trois principaux facteurs, &agrave; savoir : la transition vers une &eacute;conomie de march&eacute;, l&rsquo;ouverture du march&eacute; int&eacute;rieur et le d&eacute;veloppement des capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation locales. Nous observons que ces trois facteurs constituent en m&ecirc;me temps des objectifs &agrave; atteindre. Le dernier facteur cit&eacute; nous int&eacute;resse particuli&egrave;rement et nous donne mati&egrave;re &agrave; s&rsquo;interroger&nbsp;: est-ce que le syst&egrave;me des brevets chinois a eu l&rsquo;effet escompt&eacute; sur le d&eacute;veloppement des capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation du pays&nbsp;?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Manifestement, depuis l&rsquo;entr&eacute;e en vigueur de la loi chinoise sur les brevets au milieu des ann&eacute;es 80, les brevets &eacute;trangers ainsi que les brevets nationaux (chinois), ont connu une croissance rapide. Le nombre total de brevets d&eacute;livr&eacute;s (brevets nationaux et &eacute;trangers compris) est pass&eacute; de 138 en 1985 &agrave; 100 156 en 1999<a href="#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. L&rsquo;&eacute;tude analytique des brevets d&eacute;pos&eacute;s en Chine entre 1985<sup>&nbsp;</sup>et 1999 r&eacute;alis&eacute;e par Sun (2003) montre qu&rsquo;il existe des diff&eacute;rences notables entre les brevets nationaux et les brevets &eacute;trangers. Les brevets &eacute;trangers appartiennent principalement &agrave; la cat&eacute;gorie des &laquo;&nbsp;inventions&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, alors que les brevets chinois sont dans la majorit&eacute; des cas des &laquo;&nbsp;mod&egrave;les d&rsquo;utilit&eacute;&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;et/ou des &laquo;&nbsp;dessins industriels&nbsp;&raquo; (le dessin industriel repr&eacute;sente le nouveau dessin, la forme ou le motif d&rsquo;un produit)<a href="#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Ce r&eacute;sultat de l&rsquo;&eacute;tude de Sun est toujours valable si on se r&eacute;f&egrave;re aux statistiques de la propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle publi&eacute;s par l&rsquo;Organisation mondiale de la propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle<a href="#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.&nbsp;De plus, &laquo;&nbsp;seule une petite fraction (4 % en 2016) des brevets chinois est enregistr&eacute;e aux &Eacute;tats-Unis, dans l&rsquo;Union europ&eacute;enne ou au Japon (brevets triadiques), alors que la majorit&eacute; des brevets d&eacute;pos&eacute;s aux &Eacute;tats Unis, en Europe et au Japon sont triadiques&nbsp;&raquo; (Allard, 2020, p.126).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">De son c&ocirc;t&eacute;, Yueh (2009) explore autrement l&rsquo;impact du syst&egrave;me de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle en Chine sur l&rsquo;innovation. Dans son enqu&ecirc;te, l&rsquo;auteure prend comme facteur de l&rsquo;innovation, la &laquo;&nbsp;fonction de production de brevets&nbsp;&raquo; dans le pays&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;Les d&eacute;terminants des brevets peuvent &ecirc;tre consid&eacute;r&eacute;s comme une fonction de production qui suit un processus de Poisson<a href="#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;&raquo; (ibid., p.16)<a href="#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Tout en estimant que les d&eacute;terminants de l&rsquo;innovation sont difficiles &agrave; &eacute;valuer et que les brevets ne constituent qu&rsquo;une &laquo;&nbsp;sous-mesure&nbsp;&raquo;, les r&eacute;sultats de l&rsquo;enqu&ecirc;te indiquent, toutefois, que &laquo;&nbsp;les lois chinoises sur les brevets ont produit de l&rsquo;innovation et sont motiv&eacute;es par les d&eacute;penses d&rsquo;IDE<a href="#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;et de R&amp;D&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;(ibid., p26). Sur ce dernier point, l&rsquo;&eacute;tude de Frietsch et Wang (2007) montre que les r&eacute;sultats de la R&amp;D, encourag&eacute;s par la propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle chinoise, ne sont pas suffisamment comp&eacute;titifs pour les march&eacute;s internationaux car de nombreuses activit&eacute;s se limitent au d&eacute;veloppement et &agrave; l&rsquo;adaptation des produits et technologies existants aux besoins du march&eacute;. D&rsquo;autant plus que la hausse du nombre des brevets dans le pays a &eacute;t&eacute; plus rapide que celle des d&eacute;penses de R&amp;D, ce qui est paradoxal. Cela pourrait r&eacute;sulter de l&rsquo;efficacit&eacute; des incitations publiques au d&eacute;p&ocirc;t de brevets (syst&egrave;me de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle avantageux&nbsp;: incitations fiscales, subventions, etc.), plus que des progr&egrave;s de l&rsquo;efficacit&eacute; de la recherche<a href="#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol start="5"> <li style="text-align:justify; margin-top:16px; margin-bottom:16px; margin-left:70px"> <h2><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"><a name="_Toc36316510"> <strong>&Eacute;valuation des capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation des entreprises</strong></a></span></span></span></h2> </li> </ol> <p style="text-align: justify; margin-top: 16px; margin-bottom: 16px; margin-left: 120px;"><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">5.1</span></span></span><strong><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"> Impact du MLP (2006-2020) sur le d&eacute;veloppement des entreprises </span></span></span></strong></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">Par la voie du Plan national de d&eacute;veloppement des sciences et technologies &agrave; moyen et long terme (MLP, 2006-2020), le Conseil d&rsquo;&Eacute;tat chinois a annonc&eacute; son ambition de transformer la Chine en une nation innovante &agrave; l&rsquo;horizon 2020<a href="#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="color:black">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></span></a>. Ce programme vient de s&rsquo;achever l&rsquo;ann&eacute;e derni&egrave;re. Est-ce que les objectifs que le pays s&rsquo;est fix&eacute;s, notamment celui de renforcer la capacit&eacute; d&rsquo;innovation propre de ses entreprises, ont &eacute;t&eacute; atteints&nbsp;?&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">En s&rsquo;int&eacute;ressant &agrave; l&rsquo;&eacute;volution de l&rsquo;industrie et des technologies cl&eacute;s en Chine, Zheng et al. (2011) explorent six types d&rsquo;industries &agrave; partir de l&rsquo;analyse des brevets. Ils affirment que &laquo;&nbsp;l&rsquo;information technologique contenue dans les documents brevets fait des brevets un outil efficace pour &eacute;tudier le d&eacute;veloppement technologique et sectoriel d&rsquo;un pays&nbsp;&raquo;</span><a href="#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">&nbsp;(ibid., p.186). L&rsquo;&eacute;tude montre que la r&eacute;partition de l&rsquo;industrie chinoise est semblable &agrave; celle de l&rsquo;industrie mondiale. La seule exception vient de l&rsquo;industrie de l&rsquo;&eacute;lectrique et de l&rsquo;&eacute;lectronique (E&amp;E) qui conna&icirc;t une forte croissance &eacute;conomique. Les r&eacute;sultats de l&rsquo;enqu&ecirc;te indiquent, en effet, que cette industrie p&egrave;se plus d&rsquo;un tiers du total des brevets dans les technologies chinoises. Malgr&eacute; cette forte production de brevets, les auteurs soulignent que l&rsquo;&eacute;volution technologique dudit secteur (E&amp;E) est &laquo;&nbsp;d&eacute;s&eacute;quilibr&eacute;&nbsp;&raquo;. L&rsquo;&eacute;tude r&eacute;v&egrave;le que la quasi-totalit&eacute; des brevets d&eacute;livr&eacute;s (88%) apr&egrave;s 2006 est d&eacute;tenue par une seule firme, en l&rsquo;occurrence, Foxconn Technology Co., Ltd</span><a href="#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">Liu (2014a, p.12) estime que le MLP (2006-2020) a creus&eacute; un foss&eacute; qui ne cesse de s&rsquo;agrandir entre &laquo;&nbsp;les grandes entreprises, en particulier les entreprises publiques jouissant d&rsquo;un soutien sans faille de l&rsquo;Etat pour conqu&eacute;rir les march&eacute;s nationaux et internationaux, et les petites et moyennes entreprises (PME) qui restent plus ou moins livr&eacute;es &agrave; elles-m&ecirc;mes&nbsp;&raquo;.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <ol style="margin-left: 80px;"> <li style="list-style-type:none"><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif">5.2&nbsp;</span></span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: bold; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif;">Capacit&eacute; des entreprises&nbsp;dans le secteur de l&rsquo;&eacute;nergie renouvelable</span></span></li> </ol> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="color:black">Le secteur de l&rsquo;&eacute;nergie renouvelable est l&rsquo;un des sujets les plus trait&eacute;s dans les travaux portant sur l&rsquo;&eacute;valuation des capacit&eacute;s d&rsquo;innovation des entreprises chinoises. Pourquoi ce domaine d&rsquo;activit&eacute; suscite tant d&rsquo;int&eacute;r&ecirc;t&nbsp;?&nbsp;</span>Depuis les ann&eacute;es 2000, la Chine a entam&eacute; une transition &eacute;nerg&eacute;tique en accroissant consid&eacute;rablement ses investissements dans les sources &eacute;nerg&eacute;tiques alternatives, comme le nucl&eacute;aire et les &eacute;nergies renouvelables. Cette nouvelle orientation co&iuml;ncide avec une nouvelle r&eacute;volution industrielle, tir&eacute;e par l&rsquo;innovation verte sur lequel le gouvernement souhaite devenir le leader dans l&rsquo;industrie verte. Afin d&rsquo;atteindre ses ambitions, le gouvernement chinois a mis en place une politique visant &agrave; cr&eacute;er un environnement favorable &agrave; l&rsquo;innovation et &agrave; promouvoir l&rsquo;&eacute;mergence de nouvelles industries &eacute;nerg&eacute;tiques pour augmenter la capacit&eacute; d&rsquo;innovation de ses entreprises.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Liu (2014b) a &eacute;tudi&eacute; les performances et les limites de cette politique chinoise et a pris comme cas d&rsquo;&eacute;tude les industries photovolta&iuml;ques et &eacute;oliennes. L&rsquo;approche adopt&eacute;e par l&rsquo;auteur pour analyser la transition du secteur &eacute;nerg&eacute;tique du pays est la &laquo;&nbsp;policy mix&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[47]</span></span></span></span></span></a>. Pour l&rsquo;auteur, la &laquo;&nbsp;policy mix&nbsp;&raquo; permet de comprendre la performance des politiques d&rsquo;innovation, par rapport à l&rsquo;ensemble de l&rsquo;&eacute;ventail politique &eacute;conomique. Dans son &eacute;tude, Liu &eacute;value la capacit&eacute; d&rsquo;innovation des entreprises chinoises photovolta&iuml;ques et &eacute;oliennes &agrave; travers les brevets. Les r&eacute;sultats obtenus montrent qu&rsquo;en termes de brevets obtenus la Chine est le premier pays dans le domaine de l&rsquo;&eacute;olien (7630 brevets) et le troisi&egrave;me pays dans le domaine du photovolta&iuml;que (22363 brevets), derri&egrave;re les Etats-Unis et le Japon. Cependant, une recherche sur la fabrication et l&rsquo;installation d&rsquo;&eacute;oliennes, entre 2003 et 2013, indique qu&rsquo;&laquo;&nbsp;aucune entreprise chinoise ne figure dans les dix premiers d&eacute;posants de brevets chinois dans l&rsquo;&eacute;olien &raquo; (ibid., p.71). Le constat est le m&ecirc;me pour le photovolta&iuml;que. Les entreprises chinoises ne figurent pas en t&ecirc;te de peloton des d&eacute;posants mondiaux, sauf dans les modules solaires où il est observ&eacute; une concentration d&rsquo;entreprises chinoises. L&rsquo;auteur estime que malgr&eacute; la mont&eacute;e en gamme de l&rsquo;industrie nationale, la capacit&eacute; d&rsquo;innovation des entreprises chinoises dans le secteur des &eacute;nergies renouvelables est &laquo;&nbsp;relativement faible&nbsp;&raquo;.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Dans une &eacute;tude comparative, analysant les entreprises chinoises et les entreprises europ&eacute;ennes dans le domaine de l&rsquo;&eacute;olien, Pan et al. (2017) constatent que les entreprises europ&eacute;ennes sont &agrave; &laquo;&nbsp;la pointe des innovations mondiales&nbsp;&raquo; en mati&egrave;re d&rsquo;&eacute;oliennes avec notamment un nombre plus &eacute;lev&eacute; de citations de brevets. Pour ce qui est des entreprises chinoises, les auteurs observent que l&rsquo;augmentation des demandes de brevets dans le secteur de l&rsquo;&eacute;olien, durant ces derni&egrave;res ann&eacute;es, a contribu&eacute; &agrave; rattraper le retard des firmes chinoises dans cette technologie. Toutefois, ils trouvent que d&rsquo;un c&ocirc;t&eacute;, les entreprises chinoises ont du mal &agrave; appliquer industriellement leur innovation et de l&rsquo;autre, les brevets chinois d&eacute;pos&eacute;s manquent particuli&egrave;rement de citations.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Toujours est-il, l&rsquo;&eacute;tude de Liu (2014b) affirme que la Chine est le premier d&eacute;posant de brevets dans l&rsquo;&eacute;olien. Comment expliquer cette opposition entre le fait que la Chine soit leader en termes de d&eacute;p&ocirc;t de brevets et le constat selon lequel les entreprises chinoises sp&eacute;cialis&eacute;es dans ce domaine manquent de capacit&eacute; d&rsquo;innovation&nbsp;? Pan et al. (2017, p.10) qualifient ce nombre de d&eacute;p&ocirc;ts cons&eacute;quent comme &eacute;tant un &laquo;&nbsp;&quot;tsunami de brevets&quot; qui a conduit &agrave; une surestimation de la comp&eacute;tence d&#39;innovation des entreprises chinoises&nbsp;&raquo;<a href="#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[48]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <h2 style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:14pt"><span style="line-height:150%"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif"><strong>Conclusion</strong>&nbsp;</span></span></span></h2> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Il est clair que les politiques successives d&rsquo;innovation chinoises mises en place ces derni&egrave;res d&eacute;cennies ont eu un impact certain sur le d&eacute;veloppement de l&rsquo;innovation dans le pays. Comme nous avons pu le constater &agrave; travers notre analyse des &eacute;tudes r&eacute;centes portant sur le sujet, ce d&eacute;veloppement est &agrave; relativiser. La profusion de brevets chinois a engendr&eacute; une qualit&eacute; de brevet qui n&rsquo;a pas atteint les standards des brevets des pays d&eacute;velopp&eacute;s. Cela peut expliquer en partie la faiblesse des capacit&eacute;s innovatrices des entreprises chinoises, notamment les PME. Concernant ce dernier point, l&rsquo;&Eacute;tat privil&eacute;gie le d&eacute;veloppement de certaines grandes firmes au d&eacute;triment de ces entreprises. Cette pratique a permis l&rsquo;&eacute;mergence d&rsquo;&icirc;lots d&rsquo;innovation solitaires comme les entreprises Huawei et ZTE dans les domaines des TIC (la 5G)<a href="#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[49]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;mais a manqu&eacute; de cr&eacute;er une industrie nationale bas&eacute;e sur l&rsquo;innovation.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:47px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">Ayant voulu devenir chef de file de l&rsquo;innovation mondiale en l&rsquo;espace de tr&egrave;s peu de temps, la Chine a us&eacute; de pratiques pouvant s&rsquo;appr&ecirc;ter &agrave; de la manipulation de la connaissance pour avoir une place dominante dans le domaine de l&rsquo;innovation. Malgr&eacute; cet &eacute;tat de fait, ou la quantit&eacute; n&#39;est pas toujours &eacute;quivalente &agrave; la qualit&eacute;, il est possible que dans un proche avenir, notamment avec le plan MIC2025<a href="#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:12pt"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[50]</span></span></span></span></span></a>, la Chine rattrape voire d&eacute;passe les autres pays d&eacute;velopp&eacute;s, tant sur le plan de la production que sur celui de l&#39;innovation avec en corollaire la ma&icirc;trise des march&eacute;s mondiaux.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <h2 class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:35.4pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><b>Bibliographie</b></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h2> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-35.45pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:95px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">ALBERT M. B., AVERY D., NARIN F., MCALLISTER P., &laquo; Direct validation of citation counts as indicators of industrially important patents &raquo;, Research policy, Vol.20, N&deg;3, pp. 251-259, 1991.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">ALLARD P., &laquo; La Chine,&nbsp;championne technologique ou g&eacute;ant emp&ecirc;tr&eacute;&nbsp;? &raquo;, Politique&nbsp;&eacute;trang&egrave;re, N&deg;1, pp. 121-133, 2020.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">AMBASSADE DE FRANCE A PEKIN, &laquo; La nouvelle loi chinoise sur les brevets &raquo;, consult&eacute; le 20 janvier 2019, disponible &agrave; l&rsquo;adresse suivante :&nbsp;<a href="https://cn.ambafrance.org/IMG/pdf/nouvelle_loi_chinoise_sur_les_brevets_et_son_reglement__fev_2010.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://cn.ambafrance.org/IMG/pdf/nouvelle_loi_chinoise_sur_les_brevets_et_son_reglement__fev_2010.pdf</a>, 2010.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">AMBASSADE DE FRANCE A PEKIN, &laquo; Les politiques de soutiens &agrave; l&rsquo;innovation en Chine&raquo;, consult&eacute; le 20 janvier 2019, disponible &agrave; l&rsquo;adresse suivante :&nbsp;<a href="https://cn.ambafrance.org/IMG/pdf/les_politiques_de_soutien_a_l_innovation_en_chine.pdf" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://cn.ambafrance.org/IMG/pdf/les_politiques_de_soutien_a_l_innovation_en_chine.pdf</a>, 2012.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">BOEING P. et MUELLER E., &laquo; Measuring China&rsquo;s Patent Quality: Development and Validation Of ISR Indices &raquo;, China Economic Review, Vol.57, 2019.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">DANG J., MOTOHASHI K., &laquo;&nbsp;Patent statistics: A good indicator for innovation in China ? Patent subsidy program impacts on patent quality&nbsp;&raquo;, China Economic Review, Vol.35, pp. 137-155, 2015.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">DING L., CHEN Z., &laquo; A Review of the Research on Patent Quality in China &raquo;, International Conference on Arts and Design, Education and Social Sciences (ADESS), 2017.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">DOU H., JUILLET A., CLERC P., L&rsquo;intelligence &eacute;conomique du futur 2&nbsp;: Une nouvelle approche de la fonction information, ISTE &Eacute;ditions, Londres, 2018.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">DRAHOS P., BRAITHWAITE J., &laquo; Une h&eacute;g&eacute;monie de la connaissance. Les enjeux des d&eacute;bats sur la propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle &raquo;, Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol.151-152, N&deg;1-2, pp. 68-79, 2004.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">DUTTA S., LANVIN B., WUNSCH-VINCENT S., Global innovation index 2018: Energizing the World with Innovation,&nbsp;<span style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Ithaca, Fontainebleau,&nbsp;</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">Cornell University,</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color:black"><span style="background-color:white">&nbsp;INSEAD, WIPO, Gen&egrave;ve</span></span>, 2018.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FISCH C., &laquo;&nbsp;Patents and trademarks : Motivations, antecedents, and value in industrialized and emerging markets&nbsp;&raquo;, Th&egrave;se de doctorat en Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, 2016.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FISCH, C., SANDNER, P., REGNER, L., &laquo;&nbsp;The value of Chinese patents: An empirical investigation of citation lags&nbsp;&raquo;, China Economic Review, Vol.45, pp. 22-34, 2017.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FORAY D.,&nbsp;L&rsquo;&eacute;conomie de la connaissance, La D&eacute;couverte, Paris, 2018.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">FRIETSCH R., WANG J., &laquo;&nbsp;Intellectual Property Rights and Innovation Activities in China: Evidence from Patents and Publications&nbsp;&raquo;, Fraunhofer ISI discussion papers innovation systems and policy analysis, N&deg;13, pp. 1-26, 2007.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">GAMBARDELLA A., HARHOFF D., VERSPAGEN B., &laquo; The value of European patents &raquo;, European Management Review, Vol.5, N&deg;2, pp. 69-84, 2008.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">GRAF S.W., &laquo; Improving patent quality through identification of relevant prior art: Approaches to increase information flow to the patent office &raquo;, Lewis &amp; Clark Law Review, Vol.11, pp. 495-519, 2007.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">GRILICHES Z., &laquo; Patent statistics as economic indicators: a survey. In R&amp;D and productivity: the econometric evidence &raquo;, R&amp;D and Productivity: The Econometric Evidence, University of Chicago Press, pp. 287-343, 1998.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">GUELLEC D., NADI&Egrave;S T., PRAGER J.C., Les&nbsp;march&eacute;s de brevets dans l&#39;&eacute;conomie de la connaissance, Direction de l&rsquo;information l&eacute;gale et administrative, Paris, 2010.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">GUILHON A., MOINET N.,&nbsp;Intelligence &eacute;conomique : S&#39;informer, se prot&eacute;ger, influencer, Pearson, Montreuil, 2016.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">HAGEDOORN J., CLOODT M., &laquo; Measuring Innovative Performance. Is there an advantage in using multiple indicators ? &raquo;, Research Policy, N&deg;32, pp. 1365-1379, 2003.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">HALL B.H., &laquo; Patent data as indicators &raquo;, WIPO-Patents as Indicators, Presentation to WIPO, 2004.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">HALL B.H., GRILICHES Z., HAUSMAN J. 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text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">SONG J., &laquo; Science and technology in China: the engine of rapid economic development &raquo;, Technology in society, Vol.19, N&deg;3-4, pp. 281-294, 1997.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">SUN Y., &laquo; China&#39;s national innovation system in transition &raquo;, Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol.43, N&deg;6, pp. 476-492, 2002.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">SUN Y., &laquo; Determinants of foreign patents in China &raquo;, World Patent Information, Vol.25, N&deg;1, pp. 27-37, 2003.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">TRAJTENBERG M., &laquo; A penny for your quotes: patent citations and the value of innovations&nbsp;&raquo;, The Rand Journal of Economics, Vol.21, N&deg;1, pp. 172-187, 1990.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">VALVERDE U.,&nbsp;M&eacute;thodologie d&rsquo;aide &agrave; l&rsquo;innovation par l&rsquo;exploitation des brevets et des ph&eacute;nom&egrave;nes physiques impliqu&eacute;s, Th&egrave;se de doctorat Sciences des M&eacute;tiers de l&rsquo;ing&eacute;nieur, Ecole nationale sup&eacute;rieure d&#39;arts et m&eacute;tiers (ENSAM),&nbsp;Paris,&nbsp;2015.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">WIPO, The global innovation index 2017: Innovation feeding the world, Cornell University, INSEAD, Ithaca, Fontainebleau, Gen&egrave;ve, 2017.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">WHITE M., &laquo; Patent searching: Back to the future how to use patent classification search tools to create better searches &raquo;, 1st Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA) Conference: Queen&rsquo;s University Kingston, Ontario, 2010.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">YUEH L., &laquo; Patent laws and innovation in China. International Review of Law and Economics&nbsp;&raquo;, Vol.29, N&deg;4, pp. 304-313, 2009.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <p class="Bibliographieperso" style="text-align:justify; text-indent:-49.65pt; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px; margin-bottom:8px; margin-left:113px"><span style="font-size:medium"><span style="line-height:24px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none">ZHENG J., ZHAO Z., ZHANG X.,&nbsp;et al.,&nbsp;&laquo;&nbsp;Industry evolution and key technologies in China based on patent analysis&nbsp;&raquo;, Scientometrics, Vol.87, N&deg;1, pp. 175-188, 2011.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> <div style="text-align:start; text-indent:0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width:0px">&nbsp; <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /> <div id="ftn1"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn2"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Sachwald (2007).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn3"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Les termes valeur du brevet et qualit&eacute; du brevet sont souvent utilis&eacute;s de mani&egrave;re interchangeable comme indicateur de la signification (&eacute;conomique) d&#39;un brevet (Harhoff, Scherer et Vopel, 2003 ; Li, 2012). Nous utilisons donc les termes comme synonymes.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn4"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Levet (2001).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn5"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir White (2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn6"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Valverde (2015).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn7"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Guellec, Nadi&egrave;s et Prager (2010).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn8"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Fragot V., (2017), &laquo;&nbsp;L&rsquo;insatiable ambition de Huawei&nbsp;&raquo;,&nbsp;<i>Le Monde</i>, publi&eacute; 26 octobre. Consult&eacute; le 28 d&eacute;cembre 2018 &agrave; l&rsquo;adresse suivante&nbsp;:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2017/10/26/l-insatiable-ambition-de-huawei_5206029_3234.html" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2017/10/26/l-insatiable-ambition-de-huawei_5206029_3234.html</a>.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn9"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Si on se r&eacute;f&egrave;re &agrave; la premi&egrave;re puissance &eacute;conomique mondiale, nous constatons que &laquo; les Etats-Unis, pendant une assez longue p&eacute;riode, ont d&eacute;velopp&eacute; l&rsquo;innovation à partir du r&ocirc;le de l&rsquo;&Eacute;tat qui finance la recherche fondamentale pour cr&eacute;er les comp&eacute;tences, le savoir et les industriels qui vont transformer ces comp&eacute;tences et savoirs en produits et services &raquo; (Dou, Juillet, Clerc, 2018, p.62).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn10"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Lundvall (1992).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn11"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Ambassade de France &agrave; P&eacute;kin (2012).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn12"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Ambassade de France &agrave; P&eacute;kin (2010).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn13"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Dang et Motohashi (2015).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn14"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Dans ce cadre Liu (2014a, p.11) indique que &laquo;&nbsp;par la voie du Plan national de d&eacute;veloppement des sciences et technologies &agrave; moyen et long terme (MLP, 2006-2020), le Conseil d&rsquo;Etat chinois a annonc&eacute; son ambition de transformer la Chine en une nation innovante &agrave; l&rsquo;horizon 2020&nbsp;&raquo;.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn15"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir WIPO (2017)&nbsp;; Dutta et al. (2018).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn16"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir WIPO (2017).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn17"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Drahos et Braithwaite (2004).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn18"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Ding et Chen (2017).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn19"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Griliches (1998).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn20"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn21"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="color:black"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><span style="color:black">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color:black">&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn22"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Dang et Motohashi (2015).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn23"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn24"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn25"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn26"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn27"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Trajtenberg (1990).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn28"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Albert et al. (1991) ; Gambardella et al. (2008) ; Hagedoorn et Cloodt (2003) et Harhoff et al. (2003).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn29"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn30"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;La loi sur les brevets en Chine a &eacute;t&eacute; adopt&eacute;e en 1984. Elle est entr&eacute;e en vigueur en 1985 et a &eacute;t&eacute; modifi&eacute;e pour la derni&egrave;re fois en 2008.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn31"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Song (1997).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn32"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Sun (2002).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn33"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn34"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Sun (2003).&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn35"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Les brevets d&#39;invention font r&eacute;f&eacute;rence &agrave; de nouvelles solutions techniques li&eacute;es &agrave; un produit ou &agrave; un processus.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn36"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Le mod&egrave;le d&#39;utilit&eacute; d&eacute;signe de nouvelles solutions techniques li&eacute;es &agrave; la forme ou &agrave; la structure d&#39;un produit.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn37"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;&Agrave; ce propos, Frietsch et Wang (2007, p.11) estiment qu&rsquo;il y a une diff&eacute;rence significative entre les brevets d&rsquo;invention et les mod&egrave;les d&rsquo;utilit&eacute;&nbsp;: &laquo;&nbsp;Les brevets d&#39;invention ont des exigences formelles les plus strictes - correspondant aux conventions internationales - et doivent remplir les crit&egrave;res de nouveaut&eacute;, d&rsquo;activit&eacute; inventive - parfois aussi appel&eacute;e non-&eacute;vidence - et d&rsquo;applicabilit&eacute; &eacute;conomique. La nouveaut&eacute; signifie que le m&ecirc;me contenu ne doit pas &ecirc;tre d&eacute;pos&eacute; aupr&egrave;s d&#39;un autre office des brevets dans le monde, ni utilis&eacute; dans aucun produit, ni publi&eacute; dans aucun journal ou livre, o&ugrave; que ce soit dans le monde. L&rsquo;activit&eacute; inventive signifie avant tout que le contenu du brevet, qui est de nature exclusivement technique, doit d&eacute;passer l&rsquo;&eacute;tat de la technique d&eacute;j&agrave; connu. En revanche, les exigences formelles relatives aux brevets d&rsquo;utilit&eacute; et de conception sont moins strictes, de sorte que des modifications mineures peuvent &ecirc;tre appliqu&eacute;es et que le progr&egrave;s technologique n&rsquo;est pas n&eacute;cessairement une condition pr&eacute;alable&nbsp;&raquo; (Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn38"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Organisation mondiale de la propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle (2021), &laquo;&nbsp;Statistiques de propri&eacute;t&eacute; intellectuelle par pays : Chine&nbsp;&raquo;, publi&eacute; en mars, consult&eacute; le 30 mai 2021 &agrave; l&rsquo;adresse suivante&nbsp;:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/fr/statistics/country_profile/profile.jsp?code=CN" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline">https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/fr/statistics/country_profile/profile.jsp?code=CN</a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn39"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Selon Hall et al. (1986), le &laquo;&nbsp;processus de Poisson&nbsp;&raquo; est un mod&egrave;le de comptage (processus de comptage d&rsquo;occurrences) qui est g&eacute;n&eacute;ralement appliqu&eacute; pour estimer la production de brevets. D&rsquo;apr&egrave;s Hausman et al. (1984), les brevets ne sont pas produits avec certitude. Cela d&eacute;pend de l&rsquo;aboutissement ou pas des demandes de brevets par l&rsquo;Office. Comme le &laquo;&nbsp;processus de Poisson&nbsp;&raquo; permet de d&eacute;crire les &laquo;&nbsp;&eacute;v&egrave;nements&nbsp;&raquo; qui se produisent ind&eacute;pendamment et al&eacute;atoirement dans le temps, ce processus convient pour estimer les &laquo;&nbsp;fonctions de production des brevets&nbsp;&raquo;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn40"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn41"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Investissements directs &eacute;trangers (IDE).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn42"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn43"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Allard (2020).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn44"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir&nbsp;<span style="color:black">Liu (2014a)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn45"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn46"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Foxconn Technology Co., Ltd est un groupe industriel ta&iuml;wanais dont les activit&eacute;s principales sont la recherche et le d&eacute;veloppement, la fabrication et la vente de produits informatiques, de communication et de produits &eacute;lectroniques grand public. Il est principalement implant&eacute; en Chine.&nbsp;</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn47"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref47" name="_ftn47" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[47]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;&laquo;&nbsp;La&nbsp;<i>policy mix</i>&nbsp;d&rsquo;innovation (ou le dosage des politiques d&rsquo;innovation) repr&eacute;sente une synth&egrave;se des politiques agissant sur les principaux domaines influant la performance d&rsquo;innovation d&rsquo;un pays&nbsp;&raquo; (Liu, 2014b, p.58).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn48"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref48" name="_ftn48" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[48]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Traduit de l&rsquo;anglais.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn49"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref49" name="_ftn49" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[49]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Voir Iplytics (2019).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> <div id="ftn50"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align:justify; margin-left:47px"><span style="caret-color:#000000"><span style="color:#000000"><span style="font-style:normal"><span style="font-variant-caps:normal"><span style="font-weight:normal"><span style="letter-spacing:normal"><span style="orphans:auto"><span style="text-transform:none"><span style="white-space:normal"><span style="widows:auto"><span style="word-spacing:0px"><span style="-webkit-text-size-adjust:auto"><span style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="break-after:avoid"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif"><a href="applewebdata://6B4BC29E-0B53-4A25-92B3-868D732A3D5C#_ftnref50" name="_ftn50" style="color:#954f72; text-decoration:underline" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align:super"><span style="font-size:10pt"><span style="line-height:20px"><span style="font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif">[50]</span></span></span></span></span></a>&nbsp;Le plan Made in China (MIC), lanc&eacute; en 2015, a pour objectif que la Chine devienne &agrave; l&rsquo;horizon 2025, leader dans certains secteurs o&ugrave; elle accuse un retard par rapport aux pays avanc&eacute;s comme, entre autres, les technologies de l&rsquo;information, la robotique, les &eacute;nergies durables et la biom&eacute;decine.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></p> </div> </div>